Manuel B. Garcia

Manuel B. Garcia serves as the Senior Director for Educational Technology and Digital Learning at FEU Institute of Technology, Manila, Philippines. Read More

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1607, FEU Tech Building,
P. Paredes St, Sampaloc,
Manila, Philippines
mbgarcia@feutech.edu.ph

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Research Reference · 442 Terms

Research Glossary

A concise A–Z reference for the terminology you encounter across research methods, statistics, academic publishing, open science, and scholarly communication.

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A

Absence of Evidence

Also known as: Lack of evidence; Insufficient evidence
A condition in which available research does not provide adequate evidence to establish whether a specified effect, relationship, or phenomenon is present or absent.
Related guides: Is an Understudied Topic Worth Researching? · What Makes a Research Problem? · Does a Research Problem Need Something Wrong? · Lack of Understanding as a Research Problem · Conflicting Evidence as a Research Problem · How Much Evidence Does a Research Problem Need? · Does Every Study Need a Research Gap? · What Counts as a Genuine Research Gap? · Types of Research Gaps · Is “No One Has Studied This Before” a Research Gap? · Are “Few Studies” Enough to Justify Research? · Weak Evidence vs. Missing Evidence · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · How to Write a Literature Review That Synthesizes

Abstract and Citation Database

Also known as: Abstract and citation database
A bibliographic database that indexes publication abstracts and references between scholarly works to support literature discovery and citation analysis.
Related guides: Scopus vs. Web of Science vs. Google Scholar

Acceptability

Also known as: Study acceptability; Intervention acceptability
The extent to which research procedures, interventions, or participation requirements are considered suitable or tolerable by the people expected to participate in, deliver, or support them.
Related guides: Real-World Problems as Research Topics · One Research Topic, Multiple Studies · Practical Problems Without a Theoretical Gap · When an Important Problem Is Not Researchable · Is a Different Country a Research Gap? · Is This Study Actually Feasible? · From Research Idea to Research Plan

Allocation Concealment

Also known as: Concealment of allocation; Allocation sequence concealment
A procedure that prevents those enrolling participants in a study from knowing upcoming treatment or group assignments before allocation occurs.
Related guides: How to Critically Evaluate a Research Paper

Alternative Hypothesis

In statistical hypothesis testing, the proposition that a specified difference, association, or effect exists, considered in contrast to the null hypothesis.
Related guides: Questions, Objectives, and Hypotheses

Association

Also known as: Statistical association
A relationship between two or more variables in which their values or occurrence vary together, without necessarily implying that one causes another.
Related guides: Topic vs. Problem vs. Research Question · Choosing a Topic Based on Data Access · How Broad Is Too Broad? · One Research Topic, Multiple Studies · Lack of Understanding as a Research Problem · Inadequate Explanations as Research Problems · Methodological Weakness as a Research Problem · Research Problem vs. Symptoms · When a Research Problem Is Too Big · Turn a Real-World Problem Into a Research Problem · Does Every Study Need a Research Gap? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · How to Write a Good Research Question · What Makes a Research Question Researchable? · When Is a Research Question Too Broad? · How Specific Should a Research Question Be? · What Should a Research Question Include? · Does Every Research Question Need a Framework? · Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Questions · Can a Research Question Be Descriptive? · Can a Research Question Ask “Why”? · Can Observational Research Ask About an Effect? · Causal Language in Observational Research · Can a Study Have Multiple Research Questions? · Can Research Questions Require Different Methods? · Can Your Research Question Be Answered With Data? · What If Your Research Question Cannot Be Answered Directly? · Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review? · Scope and Delimitations of Research · Choosing a Research Approach · From Research Idea to Research Plan · How to Read a Research Paper Efficiently · Questions, Objectives, and Hypotheses

Attrition

Also known as: Participant attrition; Loss to follow-up
The loss of participants or observations from a study after enrollment or an initial measurement, including through withdrawal or loss to follow-up.
Related guides: Methodological Weakness as a Research Problem · Are “Few Studies” Enough to Justify Research? · Causal Language in Observational Research · When Does a New Question Become a New Study? · Is This Study Actually Feasible? · From Research Idea to Research Plan · How to Critically Evaluate a Research Paper

Author Alert

Also known as: Author monitoring; Researcher alert; Researcher monitoring
A notification or monitoring method used to identify newly indexed or published works associated with a specified researcher or author.
Related guides: How to Find the Latest Research

B

Basic Research

Also known as: Basic research; Fundamental research
Research primarily oriented toward developing fundamental knowledge or understanding rather than addressing an immediate practical problem.
Related guides: Does a Research Problem Need Something Wrong? · Practical Problems Without a Theoretical Gap · Is Your Research Problem Important Enough? · Does a Research Problem Need to Affect Many People? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · Choosing a Research Approach

Beneficence

Also known as: Research beneficence
An ethical principle requiring researchers to seek appropriate benefits and minimize or avoid unnecessary harms associated with research.
Related guides: What Makes a Research Question Researchable?

Bias

Also known as: Systematic bias
A systematic deviation from the truth in the design, conduct, analysis, reporting, or interpretation of research that can distort findings or conclusions.
Related guides: Personal Experience as a Research Starting Point · Conflicting Evidence as a Research Problem · Inadequate Explanations as Research Problems · Methodological Weakness as a Research Problem · How Much Evidence Does a Research Problem Need? · How to Find a Research Gap · Does Every Study Need a Research Gap? · What Counts as a Genuine Research Gap? · Types of Research Gaps · Is “No One Has Studied This Before” a Research Gap? · Are “Few Studies” Enough to Justify Research? · Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap? · Weak Evidence vs. Missing Evidence · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · Is My Research Idea Original Enough? · Scope and Delimitations of Research · Choosing a Research Approach · How to Read a Research Paper Efficiently · How to Critically Evaluate a Research Paper

Bibliographic Database

Also known as: Literature database; Bibliographic index
A searchable database that indexes scholarly publications and their bibliographic information, often including abstracts, subject terms, and citation data.
Related guides: How to Find a Research Gap · Is “No One Has Studied This Before” a Research Gap? · Is a Different Country a Research Gap? · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · How to Do a Literature Search · Scopus vs. Web of Science vs. Google Scholar · How to Search Academic Databases

Bibliographic Exchange Format

Also known as: Reference exchange format; Bibliographic interchange format
A structured file format used to transfer bibliographic records between reference-management systems, databases, or other scholarly tools.
Related guides: How to Use Reference Managers Effectively

Bibliographic Record

Also known as: Reference record; Citation record
A structured database record containing descriptive information about a scholarly source and, where supported, related notes, identifiers, links, or files.
Related guides: How to Use Reference Managers Effectively

Bibliometrics

Also known as: Bibliometric analysis; Bibliometric research
The quantitative analysis of scholarly publications, citations, authorship, and related metadata to examine patterns in research activity and influence.
Related guides: Scopus vs. Web of Science vs. Google Scholar

BibTeX

Also known as: BibTeX format
A text-based bibliographic data format used to store and exchange reference information, particularly in workflows involving TeX or LaTeX.
Related guides: How to Use Reference Managers Effectively

Blinding

Also known as: Masking
The concealment of assigned interventions, exposures, or other study information from participants, researchers, outcome assessors, analysts, or other parties to reduce the risk that this knowledge influences study conduct or assessment.
Related guides: How to Critically Evaluate a Research Paper

Boundary Condition

Also known as: Boundary conditions
A condition that specifies or influences the circumstances under which a theory, explanation, relationship, or finding is expected to apply.
Related guides: Where Research Ideas Come From · Research Based on Personal Interest · How Much Should You Know Before Choosing a Topic? · Should You Choose a Trending Research Topic? · Is Your Research Topic Too Crowded? · Is an Understudied Topic Worth Researching? · How to Narrow a Broad Research Topic · One Research Topic, Multiple Studies · Does a Research Problem Need Something Wrong? · Lack of Understanding as a Research Problem · Conflicting Evidence as a Research Problem · Inadequate Explanations as Research Problems · Practical Problems Without a Theoretical Gap · When a Research Problem Is Too Big · Turn a Real-World Problem Into a Research Problem · When the Research Problem Is Smaller Than Expected · Can a Research Problem Change? · Is Your Research Problem Important Enough? · Does a Research Problem Need to Affect Many People? · Can a Local Problem Be Worth Researching? · Does Every Study Need a Research Gap? · What Counts as a Genuine Research Gap? · Types of Research Gaps · Is a Different Country a Research Gap? · Is a Different Population a Research Gap? · Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap

Boundary Testing

Also known as: Boundary-condition testing; Boundary condition testing
Research that examines the conditions, populations, settings, or circumstances under which an established finding, relationship, theory, or explanation changes, weakens, reverses, or no longer applies.
Related guides: When the Research Problem Is Smaller Than Expected · Can a Research Problem Change? · Is a Different Country a Research Gap? · Is a Different Population a Research Gap? · Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap?

C

Calibration

Also known as: Model calibration; Predictive calibration
The agreement between predicted probabilities or risks and the outcomes actually observed, evaluated across relevant levels of predicted risk.
Related guides: When Does a New Question Become a New Study?

Causal Claim

Also known as: Causal conclusion; Causal interpretation
A claim that a change in one factor causes a change in another, requiring evidence and assumptions capable of supporting a causal inference.
Related guides: What Makes a Research Question Researchable? · When Is a Research Question Too Broad? · What Should a Research Question Include? · Does Every Research Question Need a Framework? · Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Questions · Can a Research Question Be Descriptive? · Can a Research Question Ask “Why”? · Can Observational Research Ask About an Effect? · Causal Language in Observational Research

Causal Contrast

Also known as: Counterfactual contrast
A comparison between outcomes under two or more specified exposure, intervention, or treatment conditions used to define a causal effect.
Related guides: Can a Research Question Ask “Why”? · Can Observational Research Ask About an Effect? · Causal Language in Observational Research · Can Your Research Question Be Answered With Data? · What If Your Research Question Cannot Be Answered Directly? · When Does a New Question Become a New Study?

Causal Inference

Also known as: Causal inference
The process of drawing conclusions about whether a change in one factor causes a change in another, based on a research design and assumptions capable of supporting a causal interpretation.
Related guides: Choosing a Topic Based on Data Access · Methodological Weakness as a Research Problem · Research Problem vs. Symptoms · When a Research Problem Is Too Big · Turn a Real-World Problem Into a Research Problem · When an Important Problem Is Not Researchable · How Much Evidence Does a Research Problem Need? · How to Write a Good Research Question · What Makes a Research Question Researchable? · Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Questions · Can a Research Question Be Descriptive? · Can a Research Question Ask “Why”? · Can Observational Research Ask About an Effect? · Causal Language in Observational Research · How Many Research Questions Are Too Many? · What If Your Research Question Cannot Be Answered Directly? · Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review? · Scope and Delimitations of Research · Choosing a Research Approach · From Research Idea to Research Plan · How to Read a Research Paper Efficiently · How to Critically Evaluate a Research Paper · Questions, Objectives, and Hypotheses

Causal Overinterpretation

Also known as: Causal overclaiming; Causal overstatement
The interpretation or presentation of evidence as supporting a causal conclusion when the study design, assumptions, analysis, or results do not adequately justify that inference.
Related guides: Causal Language in Observational Research

Causal Research Question

Also known as: Causal question
A research question that asks whether changing, assigning, or varying one factor causes a change in an outcome.
Related guides: Can a Research Question Be Descriptive? · Can a Research Question Ask “Why”? · Can Observational Research Ask About an Effect? · Can a Study Have Multiple Research Questions? · How Many Research Questions Are Too Many? · Should You Have a Primary Research Question? · Main Question vs. Subquestions · Can Research Questions Require Different Methods? · Can Your Research Question Be Answered With Data? · When Does a New Question Become a New Study?

Citation Analysis

Also known as: Citation analysis
The analysis of citation relationships or counts to examine how scholarly works, authors, sources, or bodies of research are connected or referenced.
Related guides: Scopus vs. Web of Science vs. Google Scholar

Citation Context

Also known as: Citation context analysis
The textual context surrounding a citation that indicates how and why a cited work is being referenced.
Related guides: How to Find Seminal Papers

Citation Field

Also known as: Citation code; Active citation field; Citation field code
Embedded document data created by citation software that links an in-text citation or bibliography entry to its managed reference information so it can be updated or reformatted.
Related guides: How to Use Reference Managers Effectively

Citation Plugin

Also known as: Citation add-in; Word-processor integration; Writing integration
Software that connects a reference manager with a word processor or writing application to insert, update, and format managed citations and bibliographies.
Related guides: How to Use Reference Managers Effectively

Citation Style

Also known as: Reference style; Bibliographic style
A set of rules governing how citations and bibliographic references are formatted and ordered in scholarly writing.
Related guides: How to Use Reference Managers Effectively

Citation Style Language

Also known as: CSL
A structured language used to define citation and bibliography formatting rules for compatible reference-management and publishing software.
Related guides: How to Use Reference Managers Effectively

CiteScore

Also known as: CiteScore metric
A Scopus-based journal metric that summarizes citations received by documents in a publication over a defined calculation period.
Related guides: Scopus vs. Web of Science vs. Google Scholar

Cognitive Scaffold

Also known as: Cognitive scaffolding
A conceptual aid that supports reasoning or task performance by providing temporary structure for organizing information, decisions, or problem solving.
Related guides: Does Every Research Question Need a Framework?

Comparator

Also known as: Comparison; Comparison condition; Comparison group
The condition, group, exposure, or alternative against which another condition or group is evaluated in a study.
Related guides: How to Choose a Research Topic · How to Narrow a Broad Research Topic · One Research Topic, Multiple Studies · Conflicting Evidence as a Research Problem · How to Find a Research Gap · Are “Few Studies” Enough to Justify Research? · Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap? · Weak Evidence vs. Missing Evidence · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · How to Write a Good Research Question · When Is a Research Question Too Broad? · Can a Research Question Be Too Narrow? · How Specific Should a Research Question Be? · What Should a Research Question Include? · Does Every Research Question Need a Framework? · Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Questions · Is This Study Actually Feasible? · Scope and Delimitations of Research · Choosing a Research Approach · From Research Idea to Research Plan · Questions, Objectives, and Hypotheses

Competing Explanations

Also known as: Alternative explanations; Competing theories
Two or more plausible explanatory accounts that can account for a phenomenon or existing evidence and can be compared by examining evidence that distinguishes their predictions or implications.
Related guides: Inadequate Explanations as Research Problems · Methodological Weakness as a Research Problem · Research Problem vs. Symptoms · When a Research Problem Is Too Big · Turn a Real-World Problem Into a Research Problem · How Much Evidence Does a Research Problem Need? · Can a Research Problem Change? · Is Your Research Problem Important Enough? · Does Every Study Need a Research Gap? · What Counts as a Genuine Research Gap? · Types of Research Gaps · Is “No One Has Studied This Before” a Research Gap? · Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap? · Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small?

Conceptual Precision

Also known as: Conceptual specificity; Conceptual clarity
The extent to which a concept is defined distinctly enough to identify what it represents and what evidence is relevant to investigating it.
Related guides: When Is a Research Question Too Broad? · Can a Research Question Be Too Narrow? · How Specific Should a Research Question Be? · What Should a Research Question Include? · Does Every Research Question Need a Framework? · Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Questions · Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review?

Conceptual Replication

Also known as: Constructive replication; Methodologically varied replication
A replication study that tests the same underlying claim while deliberately varying methods, operationalizations, procedures, or other features to assess whether the finding persists beyond the original implementation.
Related guides: Can Replication Address a Research Gap?

Confidence Interval

Also known as: CI; Confidence intervals
An interval estimate calculated from sample data that, under a specified statistical procedure and assumptions, represents a range of values compatible with the data for a population parameter.
Related guides: Conflicting Evidence as a Research Problem · Are “Few Studies” Enough to Justify Research? · Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap? · Weak Evidence vs. Missing Evidence · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · Can a Research Question Be Descriptive? · How to Critically Evaluate a Research Paper · How to Write a Literature Review That Synthesizes

Confidentiality

Also known as: Research confidentiality; Participant confidentiality
The protection of information entrusted to researchers from unauthorized access, use, or disclosure in accordance with applicable ethical, legal, and institutional requirements.
Related guides: What Makes a Research Question Researchable?

Confounding

Also known as: Confounder; Confounding variable
Distortion of an observed relationship between an exposure or intervention and an outcome because another factor is associated with both and influences their relationship.
Related guides: How Broad Is Too Broad? · Methodological Weakness as a Research Problem · Research Problem vs. Symptoms · Are “Few Studies” Enough to Justify Research? · Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap? · Weak Evidence vs. Missing Evidence · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · What Makes a Research Question Researchable? · When Is a Research Question Too Broad? · How Specific Should a Research Question Be? · Can a Research Question Be Descriptive? · Can a Research Question Ask “Why”? · Can Observational Research Ask About an Effect? · Causal Language in Observational Research · Can Your Research Question Be Answered With Data? · Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review? · How to Read a Research Paper Efficiently · How to Critically Evaluate a Research Paper

Consistency

Also known as: Consistency assumption
A causal-inference condition requiring that an individual's observed outcome under the exposure or intervention actually received corresponds to that individual's potential outcome under the same well-defined exposure or intervention.
Related guides: Can Observational Research Ask About an Effect?

Constant Comparison

Also known as: Constant comparative method; Constant comparative analysis
An iterative qualitative analytic process in which data, codes, categories, cases, or emerging concepts are continually compared to refine distinctions, relationships, and developing interpretations.
Related guides: Can a Research Problem Change?

Construct

Also known as: Research construct; Theoretical construct
An abstract concept or attribute that a study seeks to represent, measure, or investigate through observable indicators or other evidence.
Related guides: Choosing a Topic Based on Data Access · Changing Your Research Topic After Starting · Does a Research Problem Need Something Wrong? · Lack of Understanding as a Research Problem · Conflicting Evidence as a Research Problem · Inadequate Explanations as Research Problems · Methodological Weakness as a Research Problem · Practical Problems Without a Theoretical Gap · Research Problem vs. Symptoms · Turn a Real-World Problem Into a Research Problem · When an Important Problem Is Not Researchable · When the Research Problem Is Smaller Than Expected · Can a Research Problem Change? · Who Does the Research Problem Matter To? · Types of Research Gaps · Is a Different Country a Research Gap? · Is a Different Population a Research Gap? · Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · When Is a Research Question Too Broad? · How Specific Should a Research Question Be? · What Should a Research Question Include? · Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Questions · Can Your Research Question Be Answered With Data? · What If Your Research Question Cannot Be Answered Directly? · Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review?

Context-Specific Evidence

Also known as: Local evidence; Locally relevant evidence
Evidence generated or interpreted for a particular setting, population, institution, or decision context, whose value depends primarily on its relevance to that context rather than universal applicability.
Related guides: Practical Problems Without a Theoretical Gap · When a Research Problem Is Too Big · Turn a Real-World Problem Into a Research Problem · How Much Evidence Does a Research Problem Need? · When the Research Problem Is Smaller Than Expected · Is Your Research Problem Important Enough? · Who Does the Research Problem Matter To? · Does a Research Problem Need to Affect Many People? · Can a Local Problem Be Worth Researching? · What Counts as a Genuine Research Gap? · Types of Research Gaps · Is “No One Has Studied This Before” a Research Gap? · Are “Few Studies” Enough to Justify Research? · Is a Different Country a Research Gap? · Is a Different Population a Research Gap? · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap

Contextual Evidence Need

Also known as: Context-specific evidence need; Local evidence need
A need for additional evidence arising because characteristics or conditions of a particular setting create consequential uncertainty about whether existing evidence adequately answers the relevant question there.
Related guides: When a Research Problem Is Too Big · Turn a Real-World Problem Into a Research Problem · When the Research Problem Is Smaller Than Expected · Can a Research Problem Change? · Can a Local Problem Be Worth Researching? · Does Every Study Need a Research Gap? · What Counts as a Genuine Research Gap? · Types of Research Gaps · Is a Different Country a Research Gap? · Is a Different Population a Research Gap? · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · Research Problem vs. Research Gap

Contextual Gap

Also known as: Context gap; Contextual research gap; Applicability gap
A research gap arising from consequential uncertainty about whether existing findings, explanations, or evidence adequately apply in a materially different population, setting, place, time, institution, or other context.
Related guides: Types of Research Gaps · Is “No One Has Studied This Before” a Research Gap? · Are “Few Studies” Enough to Justify Research? · Is a Different Country a Research Gap? · Is a Different Population a Research Gap? · Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap? · Weak Evidence vs. Missing Evidence · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review?

Convenience Sample

Also known as: Convenience sampling
A non-probability sample composed of participants or units selected primarily because they are readily accessible or available to the researcher.
Related guides: Methodological Weakness as a Research Problem · When a Research Problem Is Too Big · When an Important Problem Is Not Researchable · Does Every Study Need a Research Gap? · Are “Few Studies” Enough to Justify Research? · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · Can a Research Question Be Too Narrow? · Can Your Research Question Be Answered With Data?

Convergent Mixed Methods Design

Also known as: Convergent design; Convergent mixed-methods design; Concurrent mixed methods design
A mixed-methods design in which quantitative and qualitative evidence are generated during approximately the same phase and then brought together for comparison, integration, or joint interpretation.
Related guides: Can Research Questions Require Different Methods?

Covariate Adjustment

Also known as: Statistical adjustment; Covariate control; Adjustment for covariates
The use of statistical methods to account for measured covariates when estimating a relationship, comparison, or effect.
Related guides: Causal Language in Observational Research

Critical Appraisal

Also known as: Critical evaluation; Critical assessment
The systematic evaluation of research to judge the validity, relevance, methods, results, and applicability of its evidence and conclusions.
Related guides: How Much Evidence Does a Research Problem Need? · When the Research Problem Is Smaller Than Expected · What Counts as a Genuine Research Gap? · Are “Few Studies” Enough to Justify Research? · Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap? · Weak Evidence vs. Missing Evidence · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · How to Read a Research Paper Efficiently · How to Critically Evaluate a Research Paper · How to Organize Your Literature Review · How to Write a Literature Review That Synthesizes · Narrative vs. Systematic vs. Scoping Reviews

Cross-Sectional Study

Also known as: Cross-sectional research; Cross-sectional design
An observational study that measures variables in a population or sample at a defined point or period without following participants over time.
Related guides: Choosing a Topic Based on Data Access · Methodological Weakness as a Research Problem · Research Problem vs. Symptoms · When an Important Problem Is Not Researchable · Types of Research Gaps · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · What Makes a Research Question Researchable? · What Should a Research Question Include? · Can a Research Question Be Descriptive? · Can a Research Question Ask “Why”? · Can Observational Research Ask About an Effect? · Causal Language in Observational Research · How Many Research Questions Are Too Many? · Can Research Questions Require Different Methods? · Can Your Research Question Be Answered With Data? · Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review? · How to Read a Research Paper Efficiently · How to Critically Evaluate a Research Paper · How to Organize Your Literature Review · How to Write a Literature Review That Synthesizes

D

Data Answerability

Also known as: Research question answerability; Empirical answerability
The extent to which available or obtainable data and an appropriate analysis can provide evidence that meaningfully addresses a research question at the level of inference it requires.
Related guides: Can Your Research Question Be Answered With Data? · What If Your Research Question Cannot Be Answered Directly? · Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review? · Can Your Research Question Change During Data Collection? · When Does a New Question Become a New Study?

Data Extraction

Also known as: Study data extraction; Evidence extraction
The structured process of collecting predefined information from studies or other sources included in a review or evidence synthesis.
Related guides: Narrative vs. Systematic vs. Scoping Reviews

Data Management Plan

Also known as: DMP; Data management and sharing plan; DMS plan
A documented plan describing how research data will be managed, protected, documented, stored, preserved, shared, or disposed of during and after a research project.
Related guides: From Research Idea to Research Plan

Data Provenance

Also known as: Provenance of data; Data origin
Information about the origin, generation, collection, processing, and history of data that is relevant to understanding what the data represent and how they can be interpreted.
Related guides: Can Your Research Question Be Answered With Data?

Database Accession Number

Also known as: Accession number; Database identifier
A unique identifier assigned by a database or information system to a record within that system.
Related guides: How to Do a Literature Search

Decision Relevance

Also known as: Decision relevance of evidence; Decision-relevant evidence
The extent to which resolving an uncertainty or obtaining evidence could meaningfully inform or alter a consequential decision.
Related guides: Research Problem vs. Symptoms · When a Research Problem Is Too Big · Turn a Real-World Problem Into a Research Problem · How Much Evidence Does a Research Problem Need? · When the Research Problem Is Smaller Than Expected · Does a Research Problem Need to Affect Many People? · Can a Local Problem Be Worth Researching? · What Counts as a Genuine Research Gap? · Are “Few Studies” Enough to Justify Research? · Is a Different Country a Research Gap? · Is a Different Population a Research Gap? · Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap? · Weak Evidence vs. Missing Evidence · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap

Descriptive Research Question

Also known as: Descriptive question
A research question that seeks to describe the frequency, distribution, level, characteristics, patterns, experiences, practices, or other features of a phenomenon without necessarily examining differences, associations, predictions, or causal effects.
Related guides: Can a Research Question Be Descriptive? · Causal Language in Observational Research · Can a Study Have Multiple Research Questions? · How Many Research Questions Are Too Many? · Should You Have a Primary Research Question? · Main Question vs. Subquestions · Can Research Questions Require Different Methods? · Can Your Research Question Be Answered With Data? · When Does a New Question Become a New Study?

Diminishing Returns

Also known as: Diminishing informational returns; Declining informational return
A condition in which additional searching, data collection, or other research effort yields progressively less new or decision-relevant information.
Related guides: How Much Evidence Does a Research Problem Need? · When the Research Problem Is Smaller Than Expected · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · When Is a Research Question Too Broad? · When to Stop Your Literature Search

Direct Replication

Also known as: Exact replication; Close replication
A replication study that repeats the original research question, procedures, measures, and conditions as closely as practical using new data to assess whether the result can be obtained consistently.
Related guides: Can Replication Address a Research Gap?

Directed Acyclic Graph

Also known as: DAG; Causal DAG; Causal diagram
A directed graph with no directed cycles that represents assumed causal relationships among variables and can support reasoning about confounding, selection, mediation, and adjustment.
Related guides: Can Observational Research Ask About an Effect?

Discrimination

Also known as: Predictive discrimination; Model discrimination
The ability of a predictive model or measure to distinguish between units that experience different outcomes.
Related guides: When Does a New Question Become a New Study?

E

Effect Estimate

Also known as: Estimated effect; Effect estimate
A quantitative estimate of the magnitude and direction of a difference, association, or effect in a study.
Related guides: Conflicting Evidence as a Research Problem · Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap? · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · Can Observational Research Ask About an Effect? · Causal Language in Observational Research · Can Your Research Question Be Answered With Data? · How to Critically Evaluate a Research Paper · How to Write a Literature Review That Synthesizes · Narrative vs. Systematic vs. Scoping Reviews

Eligibility Criteria

Also known as: Participant eligibility criteria; Eligibility requirements
Predefined characteristics or conditions used to determine whether individuals or other units qualify for inclusion in a study.
Related guides: How Narrow Is Too Narrow? · Can a Research Problem Change? · Are “Few Studies” Enough to Justify Research? · What Makes a Research Question Researchable? · Can a Research Question Be Too Narrow? · How Specific Should a Research Question Be? · What Should a Research Question Include? · Does Every Research Question Need a Framework? · Can Your Research Question Change During Data Collection? · When Does a New Question Become a New Study? · From Research Idea to Research Plan · How to Read a Research Paper Efficiently · How to Critically Evaluate a Research Paper · Narrative vs. Systematic vs. Scoping Reviews

Eligibility Detail

Also known as: Eligibility condition; Study eligibility detail
A methodological condition used to determine whether a participant, case, or other unit qualifies for inclusion in a particular study without necessarily defining the substantive research question.
Related guides: What Should a Research Question Include?

Emergent Design

Also known as: Emergent research design; Emerging design
A research design in which aspects of the inquiry may be refined or adapted during the study in response to developing understanding or evidence, while remaining coherent with the study's methodology, purpose, and ethical requirements.
Related guides: Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Questions · Main Question vs. Subquestions · Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review? · Can Your Research Question Change During Data Collection? · When Does a New Question Become a New Study?

Evidence Currency

Also known as: Currency of evidence; Evidence recency
The extent to which a body of evidence remains sufficiently current to address a present research question, considering relevant new evidence, changed conditions, and methodological developments rather than publication age alone.
Related guides: Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap

Evidence Gap

Also known as: Evidence research gap
A research gap in which available evidence is missing, insufficient, inconsistent, imprecise, weak, or otherwise inadequate to support a sufficiently reliable conclusion for a specified question.
Related guides: Types of Research Gaps · Is “No One Has Studied This Before” a Research Gap? · Are “Few Studies” Enough to Justify Research? · Is a Different Country a Research Gap? · Is a Different Population a Research Gap? · Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap? · Weak Evidence vs. Missing Evidence · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review?

Evidence Mapping

Also known as: Mapping the evidence; Evidence map
The systematic organization and characterization of available evidence across dimensions such as topics, populations, methods, interventions, outcomes, or research gaps.
Related guides: Narrative vs. Systematic vs. Scoping Reviews

Evidence of Absence

Also known as: Evidence for no effect; Evidence supporting absence
Evidence that supports the conclusion that a specified effect, relationship, or phenomenon is absent or sufficiently small under the conditions examined.
Related guides: How to Write a Literature Review That Synthesizes

Evidence Synthesis

Also known as: Research synthesis
The systematic or structured integration of findings from multiple sources of evidence to summarize what is known about a research question or topic.
Related guides: Is Your Research Topic Too Crowded? · Is an Understudied Topic Worth Researching? · Conflicting Evidence as a Research Problem · When a Research Problem Is Too Big · When an Important Problem Is Not Researchable · How Much Evidence Does a Research Problem Need? · When the Research Problem Is Smaller Than Expected · Does a Research Problem Need to Affect Many People? · How to Find a Research Gap · Types of Research Gaps · Are “Few Studies” Enough to Justify Research? · Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap? · Weak Evidence vs. Missing Evidence · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · What If Your Research Question Cannot Be Answered Directly? · Is My Research Idea Original Enough? · Choosing a Research Approach · How to Do a Literature Search · Scopus vs. Web of Science vs. Google Scholar · Narrative vs. Systematic vs. Scoping Reviews

Evidential Sufficiency

Also known as: Sufficiency of evidence; Adequacy of evidence
The extent to which the available evidence is adequate in relevance, credibility, coverage, recency, and quantity to support a specified research claim at the level of strength and scope asserted.
Related guides: How Much Evidence Does a Research Problem Need? · When the Research Problem Is Smaller Than Expected · Does Every Study Need a Research Gap? · What Counts as a Genuine Research Gap? · Types of Research Gaps · Is “No One Has Studied This Before” a Research Gap? · Are “Few Studies” Enough to Justify Research? · Is a Different Country a Research Gap? · Is a Different Population a Research Gap? · Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap? · Weak Evidence vs. Missing Evidence · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · Can a Research Question Be Too Narrow? · Research Problem vs. Research Gap

Evidentiary Burden

Also known as: Evidence burden
The amount and complexity of evidence, data collection, methodological work, and analysis required to support an adequate answer to a research question.
Related guides: When Is a Research Question Too Broad? · Can a Study Have Multiple Research Questions? · How Many Research Questions Are Too Many? · Should You Have a Primary Research Question? · Main Question vs. Subquestions · Can Research Questions Require Different Methods? · Can Your Research Question Be Answered With Data?

Exchangeability

Also known as: Conditional exchangeability; No unmeasured confounding
A causal-inference condition under which the outcome that would occur under a specified exposure or intervention is independent of the exposure actually received, either overall or conditional on measured variables.
Related guides: Can Observational Research Ask About an Effect?

Experimental Research

Also known as: Experimental study; Experimental design
Research in which an intervention, exposure, or condition is deliberately assigned or manipulated according to the study design to evaluate its effects.
Related guides: When a Research Problem Is Too Big · Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · What Should a Research Question Include? · Does Every Research Question Need a Framework? · Can Observational Research Ask About an Effect? · Causal Language in Observational Research · Should You Have a Primary Research Question? · Choosing a Research Approach

Exploratory Analysis

Also known as: Exploratory analyses; Exploratory data analysis
An analysis conducted to investigate patterns, relationships, or questions without treating all examined analyses as prespecified confirmatory tests, often to generate or refine hypotheses for further study.
Related guides: Can a Study Have Multiple Research Questions? · How Many Research Questions Are Too Many? · Should You Have a Primary Research Question? · Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review? · Can Your Research Question Change During Data Collection? · When Does a New Question Become a New Study?

Exposure

A characteristic, condition, event, or factor whose relationship with an outcome is investigated, particularly in observational research.
Related guides: How to Choose a Research Topic · Is a Different Population a Research Gap? · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · Can a Research Question Be Too Narrow? · What Should a Research Question Include? · Does Every Research Question Need a Framework? · Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Questions · Can a Research Question Ask “Why”? · Can Observational Research Ask About an Effect? · Causal Language in Observational Research · Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review? · Choosing a Research Approach · How to Read a Research Paper Efficiently · Questions, Objectives, and Hypotheses

External Validity

Also known as: Applicability
The extent to which a study's findings can be appropriately applied beyond the specific conditions, participants, settings, or observations examined.
Related guides: Is Your Research Topic Too Crowded? · Is an Understudied Topic Worth Researching? · What Makes a Research Problem? · Does a Research Problem Need Something Wrong? · Methodological Weakness as a Research Problem · Practical Problems Without a Theoretical Gap · How Much Evidence Does a Research Problem Need? · When the Research Problem Is Smaller Than Expected · Does a Research Problem Need to Affect Many People? · Can a Local Problem Be Worth Researching? · What Counts as a Genuine Research Gap? · Types of Research Gaps · Is “No One Has Studied This Before” a Research Gap? · Are “Few Studies” Enough to Justify Research? · Is a Different Country a Research Gap? · Is a Different Population a Research Gap? · Weak Evidence vs. Missing Evidence · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · What Should a Research Question Include? · Can Your Research Question Be Answered With Data? · How to Critically Evaluate a Research Paper

F

Feasibility

Also known as: Research feasibility; Study feasibility
The extent to which a proposed study can be conducted successfully within its practical, methodological, ethical, and resource constraints.
Related guides: Where Research Ideas Come From · Topic, Problem, Question, or Gap? · Personal Experience as a Research Starting Point · Real-World Problems as Research Topics · Research Based on Personal Interest · How to Choose a Research Topic · Topic vs. Problem vs. Research Question · Familiar vs. New Research Topics · How Much Should You Know Before Choosing a Topic? · Should You Choose a Trending Research Topic? · Is Your Research Topic Too Crowded? · Is an Understudied Topic Worth Researching? · Choosing a Topic Based on Data Access · Supervisor Expertise and Your Research Topic · When You and Your Supervisor Disagree on the Topic · Changing Your Research Topic After Starting · How Broad Is Too Broad? · How Narrow Is Too Narrow? · How to Narrow a Broad Research Topic · One Research Topic, Multiple Studies · When You Have Too Many Research Ideas · How to Choose Between Two Research Topics · How to Identify a Research Problem · Research Topic vs. Research Problem · What Makes a Research Problem? · Lack of Understanding as a Research Problem · Practical Problems Without a Theoretical Gap · When a Research Problem Is Too Big · Turn a Real-World Problem Into a Research Problem · When an Important Problem Is Not Researchable · Can a Research Problem Change? · Is Your Research Problem Important Enough? · Does a Research Problem Need to Affect Many People? · Can a Local Problem Be Worth Researching? · How to Find a Research Gap · Is a Different Country a Research Gap? · Is a Different Population a Research Gap? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Write a Good Research Question · What Makes a Research Question Researchable? · When Is a Research Question Too Broad? · Can a Research Question Be Too Narrow? · How Specific Should a Research Question Be? · What Should a Research Question Include? · Does Every Research Question Need a Framework? · Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Questions · Can a Study Have Multiple Research Questions? · How Many Research Questions Are Too Many? · Can Research Questions Require Different Methods? · Can Your Research Question Be Answered With Data? · What If Your Research Question Cannot Be Answered Directly? · Is My Research Idea Original Enough? · Is This Study Actually Feasible? · Scope and Delimitations of Research · Choosing a Research Approach · From Research Idea to Research Plan · Narrative vs. Systematic vs. Scoping Reviews · Questions, Objectives, and Hypotheses

Feasibility Assessment

Also known as: Feasibility assessment during planning
A structured evaluation of whether a proposed study can realistically be conducted, using available information, estimates, consultation, and verification of critical requirements.
Related guides: Choosing a Topic Based on Data Access · When an Important Problem Is Not Researchable · Can a Research Problem Change? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · How Specific Should a Research Question Be? · Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review? · Is This Study Actually Feasible?

Field Code

Also known as: Search field code; Database field code
A database-specific code or label used to restrict a search to a particular bibliographic field.
Related guides: How to Search Academic Databases

FINER Framework

Also known as: FINER criteria; FINER
A framework for evaluating research questions according to five criteria: Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant.
Related guides: How to Choose a Research Topic · Should You Choose a Trending Research Topic? · Is Your Research Topic Too Crowded? · Choosing a Topic Based on Data Access · How Narrow Is Too Narrow? · How to Identify a Research Problem · When a Research Problem Is Too Big · Turn a Real-World Problem Into a Research Problem · When an Important Problem Is Not Researchable · Is Your Research Problem Important Enough? · Does a Research Problem Need to Affect Many People? · How to Write a Good Research Question · What Makes a Research Question Researchable? · When Is a Research Question Too Broad? · Can a Research Question Be Too Narrow? · How Specific Should a Research Question Be? · Does Every Research Question Need a Framework? · How Many Research Questions Are Too Many? · Can Your Research Question Be Answered With Data? · Is My Research Idea Original Enough? · Is This Study Actually Feasible?

Fishbone Diagram

Also known as: Cause-and-effect diagram; Ishikawa diagram; Fishbone analysis
A cause-analysis diagram that organizes possible contributors to an observed problem or effect into categories to support systematic examination of potential causes.
Related guides: Research Problem vs. Symptoms

Five Whys

Also known as: 5 Whys; Five Why Analysis
A problem-analysis technique that repeatedly asks why an observed condition occurs to trace possible causal layers and generate candidate underlying causes.
Related guides: Research Problem vs. Symptoms

Foundational Paper

Also known as: Seminal paper; Foundational study; Seminal study; Landmark paper; Key paper
A scholarly work regarded as having introduced, established, or substantially shaped an important idea, theory, method, finding, or research direction.
Related guides: How Much Should You Know Before Choosing a Topic? · How to Find Seminal Papers · How to Find the Latest Research · How to Read a Research Paper Efficiently · How to Organize Your Literature Review · How to Write a Literature Review That Synthesizes · When to Stop Your Literature Search

Framework Fit

Also known as: Question-framework fit; Framework-question fit
The extent to which a research framework's purpose and components correspond appropriately to the type of question, methodology, and research task for which it is being used.
Related guides: Does Every Research Question Need a Framework?

G

Generalizability

Also known as: Generalisability; External generalizability
The extent to which findings from a study can be applied or extended beyond the specific participants, settings, conditions, or observations studied.
Related guides: Where Research Ideas Come From · Is Your Research Topic Too Crowded? · How Broad Is Too Broad? · How Narrow Is Too Narrow? · One Research Topic, Multiple Studies · How to Identify a Research Problem · Practical Problems Without a Theoretical Gap · How Much Evidence Does a Research Problem Need? · When the Research Problem Is Smaller Than Expected · Is Your Research Problem Important Enough? · Does a Research Problem Need to Affect Many People? · Can a Local Problem Be Worth Researching? · How to Find a Research Gap · Does Every Study Need a Research Gap? · What Counts as a Genuine Research Gap? · Types of Research Gaps · Is “No One Has Studied This Before” a Research Gap? · Is a Different Country a Research Gap? · Is a Different Population a Research Gap? · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · Can a Research Question Be Too Narrow? · What Should a Research Question Include? · Can Your Research Question Be Answered With Data? · Is My Research Idea Original Enough? · Scope and Delimitations of Research · How to Read a Research Paper Efficiently · How to Critically Evaluate a Research Paper

Geographic Gap

Also known as: Geographical gap; Geographic research gap
An apparent absence or scarcity of research on a topic, phenomenon, or question within a particular geographic location or setting.
Related guides: Can a Local Problem Be Worth Researching? · Does Every Study Need a Research Gap? · What Counts as a Genuine Research Gap? · Types of Research Gaps · Is “No One Has Studied This Before” a Research Gap? · Is a Different Country a Research Gap? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap

Group Library

Also known as: Shared library; Collaborative reference library
A reference-management library designed to allow multiple users to access or manage a shared collection of bibliographic records and related materials.
Related guides: How to Use Reference Managers Effectively

H

Head-to-Head Study

Also known as: Head-to-head comparison; Direct head-to-head study; Direct comparison
A comparative study that evaluates two or more active alternatives directly within the same study rather than comparing them separately through different studies or common comparators.
Related guides: Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap

Hedging

Also known as: Epistemic hedging; Qualifying language
The use of language that expresses uncertainty, limitation, or reduced commitment to a claim without necessarily changing the substantive type of claim being made.
Related guides: Causal Language in Observational Research

Heterogeneity

Also known as: Between-study heterogeneity; Study heterogeneity
Variation among studies in characteristics, methods, populations, effects, or other features relevant to interpreting or combining their findings.
Related guides: Is Your Research Topic Too Crowded? · Conflicting Evidence as a Research Problem · How Much Evidence Does a Research Problem Need? · Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap? · Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · Can a Research Question Be Too Narrow? · How to Write a Literature Review That Synthesizes · Narrative vs. Systematic vs. Scoping Reviews

Homogeneity

Also known as: Sample homogeneity; Population homogeneity
Similarity among participants, cases, observations, or other study units with respect to characteristics relevant to the research question.
Related guides: Can a Research Question Be Too Narrow?

Hypothesis Generation

Also known as: Hypothesis-generating research; Hypothesis generation
The development of hypotheses, propositions, or testable explanations from observations, data, theory, or exploratory analysis for possible evaluation in subsequent research.
Related guides: Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Questions · Can a Research Question Be Descriptive? · Can a Study Have Multiple Research Questions? · How Many Research Questions Are Too Many? · Can Your Research Question Change During Data Collection?

Hypothesis Testing

Also known as: Hypothesis-testing research; Hypothesis testing
The systematic evaluation of a specified hypothesis using empirical evidence and an analytical approach capable of assessing whether the observed data support or challenge the predicted relationship, difference, or effect.
Related guides: Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Questions

I

I-Squared Statistic

Also known as: I²; I-squared; I2 statistic
A statistic used in meta-analysis to describe the proportion of observed variation in effect estimates that is attributable to between-study heterogeneity rather than sampling variation.
Related guides: Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap?

Implementation Barrier

Also known as: Barrier to implementation; Implementation barriers
A factor that hinders the adoption, delivery, reach, fidelity, integration, or sustainability of an intervention, program, policy, or practice.
Related guides: Real-World Problems as Research Topics · Practical Problems Without a Theoretical Gap · Turn a Real-World Problem Into a Research Problem · Who Does the Research Problem Matter To? · Does a Research Problem Need to Affect Many People? · Can a Local Problem Be Worth Researching? · Is a Different Country a Research Gap?

Implementation Facilitator

Also known as: Facilitator of implementation; Implementation facilitators
A factor that supports or enables the adoption, delivery, reach, fidelity, integration, or sustainability of an intervention, program, policy, or practice.
Related guides: Real-World Problems as Research Topics

Implementation Research

Also known as: Implementation science
Research that investigates how evidence-informed interventions, programs, policies, or practices are adopted, delivered, sustained, or otherwise implemented in real-world settings and why implementation succeeds or fails.
Related guides: Real-World Problems as Research Topics · One Research Topic, Multiple Studies · Practical Problems Without a Theoretical Gap · When a Research Problem Is Too Big · Turn a Real-World Problem Into a Research Problem · When the Research Problem Is Smaller Than Expected · Can a Research Problem Change? · Who Does the Research Problem Matter To? · Does a Research Problem Need to Affect Many People? · Can a Local Problem Be Worth Researching? · Is a Different Country a Research Gap? · Is a Different Population a Research Gap? · Main Question vs. Subquestions

Imprecision

Also known as: Statistical imprecision
Uncertainty in an estimate arising from limited information, commonly reflected by a wide range of plausible values around the estimate.
Related guides: Conflicting Evidence as a Research Problem · Inadequate Explanations as Research Problems · Methodological Weakness as a Research Problem · Practical Problems Without a Theoretical Gap · How Much Evidence Does a Research Problem Need? · Does a Research Problem Need to Affect Many People? · How to Find a Research Gap · Does Every Study Need a Research Gap? · What Counts as a Genuine Research Gap? · Types of Research Gaps · Is “No One Has Studied This Before” a Research Gap? · Are “Few Studies” Enough to Justify Research? · Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap? · Weak Evidence vs. Missing Evidence · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · Is My Research Idea Original Enough? · Is This Study Actually Feasible? · How to Critically Evaluate a Research Paper · How to Write a Literature Review That Synthesizes

Inconsistent Evidence

Also known as: Conflicting evidence; Conflicting findings; Inconsistent findings
A body of relevant evidence in which sufficiently comparable findings differ enough that they do not support a sufficiently clear or dependable conclusion without further explanation.
Related guides: Conflicting Evidence as a Research Problem · Inadequate Explanations as Research Problems · Methodological Weakness as a Research Problem · How Much Evidence Does a Research Problem Need? · When the Research Problem Is Smaller Than Expected · Can a Research Problem Change? · Is Your Research Problem Important Enough? · Who Does the Research Problem Matter To? · Does Every Study Need a Research Gap? · What Counts as a Genuine Research Gap? · Types of Research Gaps · Is “No One Has Studied This Before” a Research Gap? · Are “Few Studies” Enough to Justify Research? · Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap? · Weak Evidence vs. Missing Evidence · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · Research Problem vs. Research Gap

Incremental Research

Also known as: Incremental contribution; Incremental study
Research that makes a focused addition to existing knowledge or evidence by refining, extending, verifying, or improving an established line of inquiry rather than introducing a substantially new research direction.
Related guides: Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap

Indirect Comparison

Also known as: Indirect treatment comparison; Indirect comparative evidence
A comparison of two alternatives that have not been directly compared, estimated through evidence linking them by one or more common comparators.
Related guides: Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap?

Indirect Evidence

Also known as: Indirectness
Evidence that addresses a question only indirectly because it differs in relevant populations, interventions or exposures, comparisons, outcomes, timeframes, settings, or other features from the question of interest.
Related guides: Weak Evidence vs. Missing Evidence · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · What If Your Research Question Cannot Be Answered Directly?

Inferential Distance

Also known as: Inferential gap
The degree of separation between the evidence directly produced by a study and the broader construct, outcome, population, or question to which a researcher seeks to apply the findings.
Related guides: What If Your Research Question Cannot Be Answered Directly?

Informed Consent

Also known as: Research informed consent
A process through which a prospective research participant receives and understands relevant information about a study and voluntarily agrees to participate.
Related guides: Personal Experience as a Research Starting Point · When an Important Problem Is Not Researchable · What Makes a Research Question Researchable? · What Should a Research Question Include? · Can Your Research Question Change During Data Collection? · When Does a New Question Become a New Study? · From Research Idea to Research Plan

Insider Researcher

Also known as: Insider researcher; Insider research
A researcher who studies a group, setting, community, organization, or experience to which they belong or with which they have a meaningful pre-existing connection.
Related guides: Personal Experience as a Research Starting Point

Instrumental Variable

Also known as: IV; Instrument
A variable used for causal inference that influences an exposure or treatment and, under specified assumptions, can identify a causal effect without affecting the outcome through pathways other than the exposure.
Related guides: Can Observational Research Ask About an Effect?

Intermediate Outcome

Also known as: Proximal outcome; Short-term outcome
An outcome observed earlier or nearer in a hypothesized process than the ultimate outcome of interest and used to provide evidence about part of that process without being treated as equivalent to the final outcome.
Related guides: What If Your Research Question Cannot Be Answered Directly?

Internal Validity

Also known as: Study validity
The extent to which a study's design, conduct, and analysis support a credible conclusion about the question examined within the study conditions.
Related guides: How Much Evidence Does a Research Problem Need? · Is a Different Country a Research Gap? · Is a Different Population a Research Gap? · Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Critically Evaluate a Research Paper

Intervention

An action, treatment, program, policy, or other condition deliberately introduced or assigned to evaluate its effects.
Related guides: Real-World Problems as Research Topics · How to Choose a Research Topic · One Research Topic, Multiple Studies · Conflicting Evidence as a Research Problem · Turn a Real-World Problem Into a Research Problem · How to Find a Research Gap · Is a Different Population a Research Gap? · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · How to Write a Good Research Question · Can a Research Question Be Too Narrow? · What Should a Research Question Include? · Does Every Research Question Need a Framework? · Is This Study Actually Feasible? · Scope and Delimitations of Research · Choosing a Research Approach · From Research Idea to Research Plan · Questions, Objectives, and Hypotheses

Inverse Probability Weighting

Also known as: IPW; Inverse probability weighting
A weighting method that uses inverse estimated probabilities of exposure, treatment, selection, or observation to create a weighted analysis population for estimating specified causal or statistical quantities.
Related guides: Can Observational Research Ask About an Effect?

Iterative Question Refinement

Also known as: Iterative research-question refinement; Question refinement
The progressive revision of a research question as developing understanding of the literature, theory, evidence, feasibility, or methodology clarifies the appropriate focus and scope.
Related guides: Can a Research Question Be Too Narrow? · How Specific Should a Research Question Be? · Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Questions · Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review? · Can Your Research Question Change During Data Collection? · When Does a New Question Become a New Study?

J

Joint Display

Also known as: Mixed methods joint display
A table, figure, matrix, or other structured display that brings quantitative and qualitative findings together to support comparison, integration, and development of mixed-methods interpretations.
Related guides: Can Research Questions Require Different Methods?

Journal Alert

Also known as: Journal monitoring; Table-of-contents alert; TOC alert
A notification service that reports newly released content from a specified journal or publication source.
Related guides: How to Find the Latest Research

Justice

Also known as: Justice in research; Research justice
An ethical principle requiring fair consideration in the distribution of research burdens, risks, opportunities, and benefits.
Related guides: What Makes a Research Question Researchable?

K

L

Limitation

Also known as: Research limitation; Study limitation; Limitations
A constraint or weakness affecting a study that cannot be fully eliminated or controlled by the researcher and may influence its findings or interpretation.
Related guides: Where Research Ideas Come From · What Makes a Research Problem? · Does a Research Problem Need Something Wrong? · Inadequate Explanations as Research Problems · Methodological Weakness as a Research Problem · How Much Evidence Does a Research Problem Need? · When the Research Problem Is Smaller Than Expected · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · Scope and Delimitations of Research · How to Read a Research Paper Efficiently · How to Critically Evaluate a Research Paper

Linked File

Also known as: Linked attachment; Linked-file attachment
A file associated with a reference-manager record by a link to its existing storage location rather than by copying the file into the reference manager's managed storage.
Related guides: How to Use Reference Managers Effectively

Literature Review

Also known as: Review of the literature
An examination and synthesis of existing scholarly literature relevant to a research topic, question, or problem.
Related guides: Where Research Ideas Come From · Topic, Problem, Question, or Gap? · Personal Experience as a Research Starting Point · Real-World Problems as Research Topics · Research Based on Personal Interest · Topic vs. Problem vs. Research Question · Familiar vs. New Research Topics · How Much Should You Know Before Choosing a Topic? · Should You Choose a Trending Research Topic? · Is an Understudied Topic Worth Researching? · How to Identify a Research Problem · Research Topic vs. Research Problem · What Makes a Research Problem? · Lack of Understanding as a Research Problem · Methodological Weakness as a Research Problem · Practical Problems Without a Theoretical Gap · Research Problem vs. Symptoms · When a Research Problem Is Too Big · Turn a Real-World Problem Into a Research Problem · When the Research Problem Is Smaller Than Expected · Can a Research Problem Change? · Can a Local Problem Be Worth Researching? · How to Find a Research Gap · Is “No One Has Studied This Before” a Research Gap? · Are “Few Studies” Enough to Justify Research? · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · Can a Research Question Be Too Narrow? · Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review? · How to Do a Literature Search · How to Organize Your Literature Review · How to Write a Literature Review That Synthesizes · Narrative vs. Systematic vs. Scoping Reviews · Research Problem vs. Research Gap

Literature Search

Also known as: Literature searching; Scholarly literature search
A structured process for identifying research literature relevant to a defined question, topic, or information need.
Related guides: Where Research Ideas Come From · Topic, Problem, Question, or Gap? · Personal Experience as a Research Starting Point · Real-World Problems as Research Topics · Familiar vs. New Research Topics · How Much Should You Know Before Choosing a Topic? · Should You Choose a Trending Research Topic? · Is an Understudied Topic Worth Researching? · Lack of Understanding as a Research Problem · How Much Evidence Does a Research Problem Need? · Does Every Study Need a Research Gap? · What Counts as a Genuine Research Gap? · Is “No One Has Studied This Before” a Research Gap? · Are “Few Studies” Enough to Justify Research? · Is a Different Country a Research Gap? · Is a Different Population a Research Gap? · Weak Evidence vs. Missing Evidence · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review? · How to Do a Literature Search · Scopus vs. Web of Science vs. Google Scholar · How to Search Academic Databases · Finding Research With Citation Chaining · How to Find Seminal Papers · How to Find the Latest Research · When to Stop Your Literature Search

Literature Synthesis

Also known as: Research synthesis; Synthesis of the literature
The integration and interpretation of findings, concepts, methods, or arguments across multiple sources to explain patterns, relationships, disagreements, or gaps in a body of literature.
Related guides: How to Organize Your Literature Review · How to Use Reference Managers Effectively · How to Write a Literature Review That Synthesizes · When to Stop Your Literature Search · Narrative vs. Systematic vs. Scoping Reviews

Living Systematic Review

Also known as: Living review; LSR
A systematic review that is continually or frequently updated through ongoing searches and incorporation of new eligible evidence as it becomes available.
Related guides: Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap?

Longitudinal Study

Also known as: Longitudinal research; Longitudinal design
A study that collects observations from the same or related units across multiple points or periods in time to examine change, sequence, or development.
Related guides: Choosing a Topic Based on Data Access · Methodological Weakness as a Research Problem · Types of Research Gaps · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · Can Observational Research Ask About an Effect? · Causal Language in Observational Research · Can Research Questions Require Different Methods? · Can Your Research Question Be Answered With Data? · What If Your Research Question Cannot Be Answered Directly? · Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review? · How to Organize Your Literature Review · How to Use Reference Managers Effectively · How to Write a Literature Review That Synthesizes

M

Meaningful Variation

Also known as: Substantive variation; Relevant variation
Variation among participants, cases, settings, observations, or conditions that is relevant to understanding the phenomenon or answering the research question.
Related guides: Can a Research Question Be Too Narrow?

Measurement Error

Also known as: Measurement errors
The difference between an observed or recorded value and the value that would be obtained under error-free measurement.
Related guides: Choosing a Topic Based on Data Access · Methodological Weakness as a Research Problem · Research Problem vs. Symptoms · Are “Few Studies” Enough to Justify Research? · Is a Different Country a Research Gap? · Is a Different Population a Research Gap? · Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap? · Weak Evidence vs. Missing Evidence · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · Causal Language in Observational Research · Can Your Research Question Be Answered With Data? · How to Read a Research Paper Efficiently · How to Critically Evaluate a Research Paper

Mechanism Question

Also known as: Mechanistic question; Causal mechanism question
A research question that asks how or through what process or pathway a factor may produce or contribute to an outcome or phenomenon.
Related guides: Can a Research Question Ask “Why”?

Mediator

Also known as: Mediating variable; Mediation variable
A variable through which an exposure, intervention, or other factor is hypothesized to influence an outcome, representing an intermediate process in the relationship.
Related guides: How Broad Is Too Broad? · Can a Research Question Ask “Why”? · Can Observational Research Ask About an Effect? · Causal Language in Observational Research · Can a Study Have Multiple Research Questions? · Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review?

Medical Subject Headings

Also known as: MeSH
The National Library of Medicine's controlled vocabulary used to index and search biomedical and health-related literature.
Related guides: How to Do a Literature Search

Meta-analysis

Also known as: Meta analysis
A statistical method for quantitatively combining results from multiple studies to produce a pooled estimate or examine patterns across studies.
Related guides: Conflicting Evidence as a Research Problem · How Much Evidence Does a Research Problem Need? · How to Find a Research Gap · Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap? · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · What If Your Research Question Cannot Be Answered Directly? · Choosing a Research Approach · How to Find Seminal Papers · How to Read a Research Paper Efficiently · How to Write a Literature Review That Synthesizes · Narrative vs. Systematic vs. Scoping Reviews

Meta-Regression

Also known as: Meta regression
A meta-analytic method that examines whether variation in study-level characteristics is associated with variation in effect estimates across studies.
Related guides: Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap?

Methodological Alignment

Also known as: Question-method alignment; Methodological fit; Question-design alignment
The extent to which a research question, study design, methods, evidence, and intended inferences are mutually appropriate and capable of supporting one another.
Related guides: What Makes a Research Question Researchable? · When Is a Research Question Too Broad? · Can a Research Question Be Too Narrow? · How Specific Should a Research Question Be? · Does Every Research Question Need a Framework? · Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Questions · Can a Research Question Be Descriptive? · Can a Research Question Ask “Why”? · Can Observational Research Ask About an Effect? · Causal Language in Observational Research · Can a Study Have Multiple Research Questions? · How Many Research Questions Are Too Many? · Should You Have a Primary Research Question? · Main Question vs. Subquestions · Can Research Questions Require Different Methods? · Can Your Research Question Be Answered With Data? · Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review? · Can Your Research Question Change During Data Collection? · When Does a New Question Become a New Study?

Methodological Coherence

Also known as: Methodological coherence of a study
The extent to which the components of a study form a logically consistent methodological approach capable of addressing its research question or questions.
Related guides: When Is a Research Question Too Broad? · Does Every Research Question Need a Framework? · Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Questions · Can a Study Have Multiple Research Questions? · How Many Research Questions Are Too Many? · Should You Have a Primary Research Question? · Main Question vs. Subquestions · Can Research Questions Require Different Methods? · Can Your Research Question Be Answered With Data? · Can Your Research Question Change During Data Collection? · When Does a New Question Become a New Study?

Methodological Competence

Also known as: Methodological expertise; Methodological capacity
The knowledge and skill required to design, conduct, analyze, interpret, and, where applicable, integrate the methods used in a research study credibly.
Related guides: Can Research Questions Require Different Methods?

Methodological Gap

Also known as: Method gap; Methodological research gap
A research gap arising when limitations in existing methods leave an important aspect of the evidence unresolved and a different or improved methodological approach could meaningfully address that limitation.
Related guides: Methodological Weakness as a Research Problem · How Much Evidence Does a Research Problem Need? · When the Research Problem Is Smaller Than Expected · Can a Research Problem Change? · Is Your Research Problem Important Enough? · Who Does the Research Problem Matter To? · Does a Research Problem Need to Affect Many People? · Does Every Study Need a Research Gap? · What Counts as a Genuine Research Gap? · Types of Research Gaps · Is “No One Has Studied This Before” a Research Gap? · Are “Few Studies” Enough to Justify Research? · Is a Different Country a Research Gap? · Is a Different Population a Research Gap? · Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap? · Weak Evidence vs. Missing Evidence · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review? · Research Problem vs. Research Gap

Methodological Novelty

Also known as: Methodological innovation
Novelty arising from a new or improved research method that meaningfully changes how evidence is obtained, measured, analyzed, or interpreted.
Related guides: Should You Choose a Trending Research Topic? · Methodological Weakness as a Research Problem · Does Every Study Need a Research Gap? · What Counts as a Genuine Research Gap? · Types of Research Gaps · Is “No One Has Studied This Before” a Research Gap? · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · Is My Research Idea Original Enough?

Misclassification

Also known as: Classification error; Misclassification error
The incorrect classification of a participant, observation, exposure, outcome, or other variable into a category different from its true or intended category.
Related guides: How to Critically Evaluate a Research Paper

Mixed Methods Building

Also known as: Building; Building integration
A mixed-methods integration strategy in which findings from one methodological component are used to develop or refine data collection, measures, questions, or procedures for another component.
Related guides: Can Research Questions Require Different Methods?

Mixed Methods Connecting

Also known as: Connecting; Connecting integration
A mixed-methods integration strategy in which results or participants from one component are used to inform the sampling or procedures of another component.
Related guides: Can Research Questions Require Different Methods?

Mixed Methods Embedding

Also known as: Embedding; Embedded integration
A mixed-methods integration strategy in which one form of data or inquiry is incorporated within a larger design that is primarily organized around another methodological component.
Related guides: Can Research Questions Require Different Methods?

Mixed Methods Integration

Also known as: Integration; Mixed methods integration
The deliberate connection of quantitative and qualitative components within a mixed methods study so that their combined use contributes to answering the research question.
Related guides: Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Questions · Can a Study Have Multiple Research Questions? · How Many Research Questions Are Too Many? · Should You Have a Primary Research Question? · Main Question vs. Subquestions · Can Research Questions Require Different Methods? · Choosing a Research Approach · From Research Idea to Research Plan

Mixed Methods Merging

Also known as: Merging; Merging integration
A mixed-methods integration strategy in which quantitative and qualitative data or results are brought together for direct comparison, combined analysis, or interpretation.
Related guides: Can Research Questions Require Different Methods?

Mixed Methods Research

Also known as: Mixed-methods research; Mixed methods
A research approach that integrates quantitative and qualitative methods within a single study or program of inquiry.
Related guides: How Broad Is Too Broad? · How to Identify a Research Problem · Methodological Weakness as a Research Problem · Types of Research Gaps · How to Write a Good Research Question · When Is a Research Question Too Broad? · Does Every Research Question Need a Framework? · Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Questions · Can a Research Question Ask “Why”? · Can a Study Have Multiple Research Questions? · How Many Research Questions Are Too Many? · Should You Have a Primary Research Question? · Main Question vs. Subquestions · Can Research Questions Require Different Methods? · What If Your Research Question Cannot Be Answered Directly? · When Does a New Question Become a New Study? · Choosing a Research Approach

Model Misspecification

Also known as: Statistical model misspecification
A condition in which a statistical model does not adequately represent features of the data-generating process required for the intended analysis or inference.
Related guides: Can Observational Research Ask About an Effect?

Motivating Question

Also known as: Big question; Large motivating question
A broad scientific, theoretical, practical, or societal question that establishes why a research problem matters and may guide narrower empirical questions without being fully answerable by a single study.
Related guides: What If Your Research Question Cannot Be Answered Directly?

Multi-Stakeholder Study

Also known as: Multi-stakeholder research
A study that deliberately investigates the perspectives, experiences, behaviors, or evidence of two or more stakeholder groups in relation to a shared research problem.
Related guides: How Many Research Questions Are Too Many?

My NCBI

Also known as: MyNCBI
An NCBI account-based service that provides personalized functions such as saving searches and configuring automatic updates for supported NCBI databases.
Related guides: How to Find the Latest Research

N

Network Meta-analysis

Also known as: NMA; Network meta analysis; Multiple treatments meta-analysis
A meta-analytic method that estimates relative effects among multiple alternatives within a connected evidence network by combining direct and indirect comparative evidence.
Related guides: Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap?

Non-Directional Hypothesis

Also known as: Nondirectional hypothesis; Non-directional research hypothesis
A hypothesis that predicts the existence of a relationship, difference, or effect without specifying its direction.
Related guides: Questions, Objectives, and Hypotheses

Nonresponse Bias

Also known as: Non-response bias
Systematic distortion in study findings that occurs when participation or response differs in ways related to the characteristics or outcomes being estimated.
Related guides: Can a Research Question Be Descriptive?

Normative Question

Also known as: Normative research question
A question that asks what ought to be, what is right or wrong, or what should be valued or done, rather than asking only what can be established through empirical evidence.
Related guides: What Makes a Research Question Researchable?

Novelty

Also known as: Research novelty
The extent to which a study contributes new knowledge by confirming, challenging, refining, extending, or applying existing evidence in a substantively meaningful way.
Related guides: How to Choose a Research Topic · Familiar vs. New Research Topics · Should You Choose a Trending Research Topic? · Is Your Research Topic Too Crowded? · Is an Understudied Topic Worth Researching? · Choosing a Topic Based on Data Access · Supervisor Expertise and Your Research Topic · When You and Your Supervisor Disagree on the Topic · Changing Your Research Topic After Starting · How Narrow Is Too Narrow? · One Research Topic, Multiple Studies · How to Choose Between Two Research Topics · How to Identify a Research Problem · What Makes a Research Problem? · Lack of Understanding as a Research Problem · Practical Problems Without a Theoretical Gap · Is Your Research Problem Important Enough? · Can a Local Problem Be Worth Researching? · How to Find a Research Gap · Does Every Study Need a Research Gap? · What Counts as a Genuine Research Gap? · Types of Research Gaps · Is “No One Has Studied This Before” a Research Gap? · Is a Different Population a Research Gap? · Weak Evidence vs. Missing Evidence · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · How to Write a Good Research Question · What Makes a Research Question Researchable? · Can a Research Question Be Too Narrow? · How Specific Should a Research Question Be? · Does Every Research Question Need a Framework? · Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review? · Is My Research Idea Original Enough? · Research Problem vs. Research Gap

Null Hypothesis

Also known as: Null hypothesis
In statistical hypothesis testing, the proposition that a specified difference, association, or effect is absent at the population level under the statistical model being tested.
Related guides: Questions, Objectives, and Hypotheses

O

Observational Research

Also known as: Observational study; Observational design
Research in which investigators observe exposures, characteristics, or outcomes without assigning or manipulating the condition of primary interest.
Related guides: One Research Topic, Multiple Studies · Research Problem vs. Symptoms · When a Research Problem Is Too Big · When an Important Problem Is Not Researchable · Does Every Study Need a Research Gap? · Weak Evidence vs. Missing Evidence · Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · What Makes a Research Question Researchable? · When Is a Research Question Too Broad? · How Specific Should a Research Question Be? · What Should a Research Question Include? · Does Every Research Question Need a Framework? · Can a Research Question Be Descriptive? · Can a Research Question Ask “Why”? · Can Observational Research Ask About an Effect? · Causal Language in Observational Research · What If Your Research Question Cannot Be Answered Directly? · Choosing a Research Approach · How to Read a Research Paper Efficiently · How to Critically Evaluate a Research Paper

Omitted Mechanism

Also known as: Missing mechanism
A causal, explanatory, or process mechanism not represented in an existing explanation that may be necessary to account adequately for observed evidence or variation.
Related guides: Inadequate Explanations as Research Problems · When a Research Problem Is Too Big · Turn a Real-World Problem Into a Research Problem · When the Research Problem Is Smaller Than Expected · Types of Research Gaps · Is “No One Has Studied This Before” a Research Gap? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap

Operational Definition

Also known as: Operationalization; Operationalisation; Operational measure
A specification of how a concept or construct is represented, measured, classified, or observed in a particular study.
Related guides: Choosing a Topic Based on Data Access · Methodological Weakness as a Research Problem · Research Problem vs. Symptoms · Turn a Real-World Problem Into a Research Problem · When an Important Problem Is Not Researchable · Is a Different Country a Research Gap? · Is a Different Population a Research Gap? · Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · What Makes a Research Question Researchable? · How Specific Should a Research Question Be? · What Should a Research Question Include? · Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Questions · Can a Research Question Be Descriptive? · Can Your Research Question Be Answered With Data? · What If Your Research Question Cannot Be Answered Directly? · Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review?

Operator Precedence

Also known as: Search operator precedence; Order of operations
The rules determining the order in which a search system evaluates multiple logical operators when a query does not explicitly override that order.
Related guides: How to Search Academic Databases

ORCID

Also known as: Open Researcher and Contributor ID
A persistent identifier system that distinguishes researchers and connects them with their scholarly activities and records.
Related guides: How to Find the Latest Research

Outcome

Also known as: Outcome variable; Outcome measure
A result, event, response, or characteristic measured to assess what occurs in relation to an exposure, intervention, or other factor under investigation.
Related guides: How to Choose a Research Topic · How Broad Is Too Broad? · How Narrow Is Too Narrow? · How to Narrow a Broad Research Topic · Conflicting Evidence as a Research Problem · Research Problem vs. Symptoms · When a Research Problem Is Too Big · Can a Research Problem Change? · How to Find a Research Gap · Is a Different Population a Research Gap? · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · How to Write a Good Research Question · When Is a Research Question Too Broad? · Can a Research Question Be Too Narrow? · How Specific Should a Research Question Be? · What Should a Research Question Include? · Does Every Research Question Need a Framework? · Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Questions · Can a Research Question Ask “Why”? · Can Observational Research Ask About an Effect? · Causal Language in Observational Research · Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review? · When Does a New Question Become a New Study? · Is This Study Actually Feasible? · Scope and Delimitations of Research · Choosing a Research Approach · From Research Idea to Research Plan · How to Read a Research Paper Efficiently · Questions, Objectives, and Hypotheses

P

P-Value

Also known as: p value; p-value
Under a specified statistical model, the probability of obtaining a result at least as incompatible with the null hypothesis as the observed result, assuming the null hypothesis and model assumptions are true.
Related guides: Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap? · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · Causal Language in Observational Research · Should You Have a Primary Research Question? · Can Your Research Question Be Answered With Data? · How to Critically Evaluate a Research Paper

Path Dependence

Also known as: Path-dependent search; Search path dependence
The tendency for the information discovered through an iterative search process to depend partly on the starting points and sequence of prior search choices.
Related guides: Finding Research With Citation Chaining

Personal Knowledge Gap

Also known as: Individual knowledge gap
A limitation in an individual's current knowledge or understanding that may be resolvable through further learning and does not by itself indicate a gap in the existing research evidence.
Related guides: Lack of Understanding as a Research Problem

PICO Framework

Also known as: PICO; PICOT; PICOT Framework
A framework for structuring research questions by specifying the Population or participants, Intervention, Comparison, and Outcome, with Time sometimes added as a fifth element.
Related guides: Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · How to Write a Good Research Question · What Makes a Research Question Researchable? · When Is a Research Question Too Broad? · Can a Research Question Be Too Narrow? · How Specific Should a Research Question Be? · What Should a Research Question Include? · Does Every Research Question Need a Framework? · Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Questions · How to Do a Literature Search

Pilot Study

Also known as: Pilot
A form of feasibility research in which a future study, or part of it, is conducted on a smaller scale to assess whether or how the main study can be carried out.
Related guides: Choosing a Topic Based on Data Access · Changing Your Research Topic After Starting · When an Important Problem Is Not Researchable · Can a Research Question Be Too Narrow? · Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Questions · What If Your Research Question Cannot Be Answered Directly? · Is This Study Actually Feasible? · From Research Idea to Research Plan

Population Gap

Also known as: Population research gap; Population-based research gap
A research gap arising when a population is absent, underrepresented, or inadequately analyzed in existing evidence and relevant population differences leave an important question, inference, or decision insufficiently resolved.
Related guides: Is a Different Population a Research Gap? · Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap? · Weak Evidence vs. Missing Evidence · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review?

Positionality

Also known as: Researcher positionality
The researcher's position and relationship to the research context, including characteristics, experiences, roles, and relationships that may shape the research process and knowledge produced.
Related guides: Personal Experience as a Research Starting Point

Positivity

Also known as: Positivity assumption; Experimental treatment assignment assumption
A causal-inference condition requiring that each exposure or intervention level being compared has a nonzero probability of occurring within relevant levels of the variables used for causal adjustment.
Related guides: Can Observational Research Ask About an Effect?

Post Hoc Hypothesis

Also known as: Post-hoc hypothesis; Data-generated hypothesis
A hypothesis formulated after examining relevant data or results rather than specified before the analysis.
Related guides: Choosing a Topic Based on Data Access · Changing Your Research Topic After Starting · Can a Research Problem Change? · Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap? · Can a Study Have Multiple Research Questions? · How Many Research Questions Are Too Many? · Should You Have a Primary Research Question? · Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review? · Questions, Objectives, and Hypotheses

Practical Problem

Also known as: Real-world problem; Applied problem
A consequential condition or situation in practice that stakeholders may seek to understand, change, or address and that can provide a starting point for research.
Related guides: Real-World Problems as Research Topics · Research Topic vs. Research Problem · What Makes a Research Problem? · Does a Research Problem Need Something Wrong? · Lack of Understanding as a Research Problem · Practical Problems Without a Theoretical Gap · Research Problem vs. Symptoms · When a Research Problem Is Too Big · Turn a Real-World Problem Into a Research Problem · How Much Evidence Does a Research Problem Need? · When the Research Problem Is Smaller Than Expected · Can a Research Problem Change? · Is Your Research Problem Important Enough? · Who Does the Research Problem Matter To? · Can a Local Problem Be Worth Researching? · Research Problem vs. Research Gap

Practical Significance

Also known as: Practical importance; Clinical significance; Scientific importance
The extent to which the magnitude of a research finding is meaningful or consequential in a relevant scientific, clinical, policy, practical, or decision-making context.
Related guides: Practical Problems Without a Theoretical Gap · Turn a Real-World Problem Into a Research Problem · When an Important Problem Is Not Researchable · When the Research Problem Is Smaller Than Expected · Is Your Research Problem Important Enough? · Who Does the Research Problem Matter To? · Does a Research Problem Need to Affect Many People? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Critically Evaluate a Research Paper

Pre-Mortem

Also known as: Premortem; Pre-mortem analysis; Premortem analysis
A prospective risk-analysis technique in which a project is imagined to have failed and plausible reasons for that failure are identified in advance.
Related guides: How to Choose Between Two Research Topics

Prediction

Also known as: Predictive inference; Statistical prediction
The use of observed information to estimate or anticipate an unknown or future outcome, without necessarily implying that the predictors cause the outcome.
Related guides: Can Observational Research Ask About an Effect? · Causal Language in Observational Research · Can a Study Have Multiple Research Questions? · Should You Have a Primary Research Question? · Can Your Research Question Be Answered With Data? · When Does a New Question Become a New Study?

Preliminary Research

Also known as: Preliminary reading; Exploratory reading
An initial examination of relevant literature and other sources used to understand a research area and inform the development of a study.
Related guides: Where Research Ideas Come From · Topic, Problem, Question, or Gap? · Personal Experience as a Research Starting Point · Research Based on Personal Interest · How to Choose a Research Topic · Topic vs. Problem vs. Research Question · Familiar vs. New Research Topics · How Much Should You Know Before Choosing a Topic? · Should You Choose a Trending Research Topic? · Choosing a Topic Based on Data Access · Supervisor Expertise and Your Research Topic · When You and Your Supervisor Disagree on the Topic · Changing Your Research Topic After Starting · How Broad Is Too Broad? · How Narrow Is Too Narrow? · How to Narrow a Broad Research Topic · When You Have Too Many Research Ideas · How to Choose Between Two Research Topics · How to Identify a Research Problem · Research Topic vs. Research Problem · Research Problem vs. Symptoms · Can a Research Problem Change? · How to Find a Research Gap · Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Questions · Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review? · How to Do a Literature Search

Preregistration

Also known as: Pre-registration
The time-stamped documentation of a study's planned questions, hypotheses, methods, or analyses before the relevant research outcomes are known.
Related guides: How to Choose a Research Topic · Changing Your Research Topic After Starting · Can a Research Problem Change? · Should You Have a Primary Research Question? · Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review? · Can Your Research Question Change During Data Collection? · When Does a New Question Become a New Study? · From Research Idea to Research Plan · How to Read a Research Paper Efficiently · How to Critically Evaluate a Research Paper

Prespecification

Also known as: Pre-specification; A priori specification
The advance specification of research questions, hypotheses, outcomes, methods, analyses, or other study elements before the relevant data or results are examined.
Related guides: How Specific Should a Research Question Be? · Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Questions · Can a Study Have Multiple Research Questions? · How Many Research Questions Are Too Many? · Should You Have a Primary Research Question? · Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review? · Can Your Research Question Change During Data Collection? · When Does a New Question Become a New Study?

Prespecified Hypothesis

Also known as: Pre-specified hypothesis; A priori hypothesis
A hypothesis specified before examining the relevant study results or conducting the analysis intended to test it.
Related guides: Choosing a Topic Based on Data Access · Changing Your Research Topic After Starting · Can a Research Problem Change? · Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap? · Can a Research Question Be Too Narrow? · How Specific Should a Research Question Be? · Questions, Objectives, and Hypotheses

PRESS Guideline

Also known as: PRESS; Peer Review of Electronic Search Strategies
A structured guideline for peer review of electronic literature-search strategies.
Related guides: How to Do a Literature Search

Prevalence

Also known as: Problem prevalence; Population prevalence
The proportion or number of individuals, cases, units, or settings in a defined population that have a specified condition or characteristic at a particular time or over a specified period.
Related guides: Turn a Real-World Problem Into a Research Problem · How Much Evidence Does a Research Problem Need? · When the Research Problem Is Smaller Than Expected · Does a Research Problem Need to Affect Many People? · Is a Different Country a Research Gap? · Is a Different Population a Research Gap? · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · What Makes a Research Question Researchable? · Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Questions · Can a Research Question Be Descriptive? · Should You Have a Primary Research Question? · Can Research Questions Require Different Methods? · Can Your Research Question Be Answered With Data?

Primary Research

Also known as: Primary empirical research
Research that generates or analyzes empirical evidence from participants, observations, experiments, records, datasets, documents, specimens, or other sources to answer a research question.
Related guides: Is an Understudied Topic Worth Researching? · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · Choosing a Research Approach

Primary Research Question

Also known as: Primary question
The main research question representing the central uncertainty a study is designed to resolve and, where appropriate, guiding key decisions about its design, outcomes, data collection, analysis, or sample size.
Related guides: Can a Research Problem Change? · How to Write a Good Research Question · When Is a Research Question Too Broad? · Can a Research Question Be Descriptive? · Can a Study Have Multiple Research Questions? · How Many Research Questions Are Too Many? · Should You Have a Primary Research Question? · Main Question vs. Subquestions · Scope and Delimitations of Research · From Research Idea to Research Plan · Questions, Objectives, and Hypotheses

Progression Criteria

Also known as: Predefined progression criteria; Go/no-go criteria
Predefined criteria used to determine whether a study or development process should proceed, be modified, or stop based on feasibility findings.
Related guides: Is This Study Actually Feasible?

Progressive Commitment

Also known as: Progressive specification
The gradual increase in specificity and commitment to research decisions as a study moves from an initial idea through literature review and planning toward data collection.
Related guides: How Specific Should a Research Question Be?

Protocol Amendment

Also known as: Research protocol amendment; Ethics amendment; Protocol modification
A formally documented change to an approved research protocol that is submitted for review or authorization when required before the revised procedures are implemented.
Related guides: Changing Your Research Topic After Starting · Can a Research Problem Change? · Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review? · Can Your Research Question Change During Data Collection? · When Does a New Question Become a New Study?

Protocol-Driven Evidence Search

Also known as: Protocol-driven search; Method-driven evidence search
A literature search conducted according to prespecified methodological requirements, with its scope, procedures, and stopping determined by the review protocol or applicable review method.
Related guides: When to Stop Your Literature Search

Proxy Measure

Also known as: Proxy variable; Proxy indicator
A measure used to represent a construct, condition, or quantity that is not measured directly, based on an assumed relationship between the proxy and what it is intended to represent.
Related guides: Methodological Weakness as a Research Problem · Research Problem vs. Symptoms · Turn a Real-World Problem Into a Research Problem · When an Important Problem Is Not Researchable · Can a Research Problem Change? · Can Your Research Question Be Answered With Data? · What If Your Research Question Cannot Be Answered Directly? · Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review?

Pseudonymization

Also known as: Pseudonymisation; Data pseudonymization
The processing of identifiable data so that they cannot be attributed to a specific individual without additional information that is kept separately.
Related guides: From Research Idea to Research Plan

Purpose-Driven Literature Search

Also known as: Purpose-driven search; Purpose-driven literature searching
A literature search conducted to identify and understand enough relevant scholarship to support a defined research or scholarly task, with adequacy judged in relation to that purpose.
Related guides: When to Stop Your Literature Search

Q

Qualitative Research

Also known as: Qualitative study
Research that investigates meanings, experiences, processes, or phenomena primarily through the collection and interpretation of non-numerical data.
Related guides: How to Identify a Research Problem · Lack of Understanding as a Research Problem · When a Research Problem Is Too Big · Can a Research Problem Change? · Does a Research Problem Need to Affect Many People? · Types of Research Gaps · Is “No One Has Studied This Before” a Research Gap? · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · How to Write a Good Research Question · What Makes a Research Question Researchable? · When Is a Research Question Too Broad? · Can a Research Question Be Too Narrow? · How Specific Should a Research Question Be? · What Should a Research Question Include? · Does Every Research Question Need a Framework? · Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Questions · Can a Research Question Be Descriptive? · Can a Research Question Ask “Why”? · Can a Study Have Multiple Research Questions? · How Many Research Questions Are Too Many? · Should You Have a Primary Research Question? · Main Question vs. Subquestions · Can Research Questions Require Different Methods? · Can Your Research Question Be Answered With Data? · Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review? · Can Your Research Question Change During Data Collection? · When Does a New Question Become a New Study? · Is This Study Actually Feasible? · Scope and Delimitations of Research · Choosing a Research Approach · From Research Idea to Research Plan · Questions, Objectives, and Hypotheses

Quantitative Research

Also known as: Quantitative study
Research that investigates phenomena primarily through the collection and analysis of numerical data using measurement and statistical or mathematical methods.
Related guides: How to Identify a Research Problem · Types of Research Gaps · Is “No One Has Studied This Before” a Research Gap? · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Write a Good Research Question · What Makes a Research Question Researchable? · When Is a Research Question Too Broad? · Can a Research Question Be Too Narrow? · How Specific Should a Research Question Be? · What Should a Research Question Include? · Does Every Research Question Need a Framework? · Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Questions · Can a Research Question Be Descriptive? · Can a Study Have Multiple Research Questions? · How Many Research Questions Are Too Many? · Should You Have a Primary Research Question? · Main Question vs. Subquestions · Can Research Questions Require Different Methods? · Can Your Research Question Be Answered With Data? · Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review? · Is This Study Actually Feasible? · Scope and Delimitations of Research · Choosing a Research Approach · From Research Idea to Research Plan · Questions, Objectives, and Hypotheses

Question Proliferation

Also known as: Research question proliferation; Question inflation
The expansion of a study's research-question set beyond what is substantively necessary or methodologically manageable, often by adding questions because additional variables, analyses, or topics are available.
Related guides: How Many Research Questions Are Too Many?

Question-to-Evidence Map

Also known as: Research question-to-evidence map; Question-evidence map
A planning tool that links components of a research question to the evidence, sources, temporal structure, comparisons, and inferential requirements needed to answer them.
Related guides: Can Your Research Question Be Answered With Data?

R

Randomized Controlled Trial

Also known as: Randomised controlled trial; Randomized trial; RCT
An experimental study in which participants or other units are assigned to intervention or comparison groups using a random allocation process.
Related guides: Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · What Makes a Research Question Researchable? · Can Observational Research Ask About an Effect? · Causal Language in Observational Research · Should You Have a Primary Research Question? · How to Critically Evaluate a Research Paper

Recruitment

Also known as: Participant recruitment; Study recruitment
The process of identifying, approaching, and enrolling eligible participants into a research study.
Related guides: Personal Experience as a Research Starting Point · When an Important Problem Is Not Researchable · Can a Research Problem Change? · What Makes a Research Question Researchable? · Can a Research Question Be Too Narrow? · How Specific Should a Research Question Be? · How Many Research Questions Are Too Many? · Can Research Questions Require Different Methods? · Is This Study Actually Feasible? · From Research Idea to Research Plan

Reference Library

Also known as: Bibliographic library; Reference-management library
An organized collection of bibliographic records and associated research materials maintained within a reference-management system.
Related guides: How to Use Reference Managers Effectively

Reflexivity

Also known as: Research reflexivity; Researcher reflexivity
The critical examination of how a researcher's position, assumptions, relationships, decisions, and interpretations interact with and may shape the research process.
Related guides: Personal Experience as a Research Starting Point

Relational Research Question

Also known as: Relationship question; Associational research question; Association question
A research question that asks whether and how two or more measured characteristics or variables are associated without necessarily making a causal claim.
Related guides: Can a Research Question Be Descriptive? · Can a Research Question Ask “Why”? · Can Observational Research Ask About an Effect? · Causal Language in Observational Research · Can a Study Have Multiple Research Questions? · How Many Research Questions Are Too Many? · Should You Have a Primary Research Question? · Can Research Questions Require Different Methods? · Can Your Research Question Be Answered With Data?

Replication

Also known as: Replication study
The repetition of a previous study or its essential procedures to assess whether its findings can be reproduced under similar or systematically varied conditions.
Related guides: Where Research Ideas Come From · Research Based on Personal Interest · Should You Choose a Trending Research Topic? · Is Your Research Topic Too Crowded? · Is an Understudied Topic Worth Researching? · Choosing a Topic Based on Data Access · Changing Your Research Topic After Starting · How Narrow Is Too Narrow? · One Research Topic, Multiple Studies · When You Have Too Many Research Ideas · How to Choose Between Two Research Topics · How to Identify a Research Problem · Research Topic vs. Research Problem · What Makes a Research Problem? · Conflicting Evidence as a Research Problem · When the Research Problem Is Smaller Than Expected · Can a Research Problem Change? · Is Your Research Problem Important Enough? · Does Every Study Need a Research Gap? · Is “No One Has Studied This Before” a Research Gap? · Are “Few Studies” Enough to Justify Research? · Is a Different Country a Research Gap? · Is a Different Population a Research Gap? · Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap? · Weak Evidence vs. Missing Evidence · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · Is My Research Idea Original Enough? · How to Find Seminal Papers

Representativeness

Also known as: Sample representativeness
The extent to which the characteristics and selection of an observed sample adequately reflect the target population for the inference being made.
Related guides: Can Your Research Question Be Answered With Data?

Reproducibility

Also known as: Computational reproducibility
The ability to obtain consistent computational results using the same input data, computational procedures, methods, code, and analysis conditions.
Related guides: Can Replication Address a Research Gap?

Research Analytics

Also known as: Research analysis; Research analytics
The use of structured research information and quantitative indicators to examine research activity, output, collaboration, visibility, or influence.
Related guides: Scopus vs. Web of Science vs. Google Scholar

Research Approach

Also known as: Methodological approach
The broad methodological orientation of an investigation, such as quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods research.
Related guides: Topic, Problem, Question, or Gap? · Personal Experience as a Research Starting Point · When a Research Problem Is Too Big · Can a Research Problem Change? · How Specific Should a Research Question Be? · What Should a Research Question Include? · Does Every Research Question Need a Framework? · Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Questions · Main Question vs. Subquestions · Can Research Questions Require Different Methods? · Choosing a Research Approach · From Research Idea to Research Plan

Research Beneficiary

Also known as: Research beneficiary; Affected group; Research-affected group
A person, group, or community whose circumstances, opportunities, risks, burdens, or benefits may be influenced by a research problem, its investigation, or decisions informed by the resulting evidence.
Related guides: Who Does the Research Problem Matter To? · Does a Research Problem Need to Affect Many People? · Can a Local Problem Be Worth Researching? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps

Research Burden

Also known as: Participant burden; Study burden
The time, effort, inconvenience, discomfort, risk, resource use, or other demands that participation in or support of research may impose on individuals, communities, organizations, or other parties.
Related guides: When an Important Problem Is Not Researchable · Is Your Research Problem Important Enough? · Who Does the Research Problem Matter To? · Does a Research Problem Need to Affect Many People? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small?

Research Contribution

Also known as: Contribution; Scholarly contribution
The addition a study makes to existing knowledge, theory, methodology, practice, policy, or understanding.
Related guides: Where Research Ideas Come From · Topic, Problem, Question, or Gap? · Real-World Problems as Research Topics · Research Based on Personal Interest · Familiar vs. New Research Topics · How Much Should You Know Before Choosing a Topic? · Should You Choose a Trending Research Topic? · Is Your Research Topic Too Crowded? · Is an Understudied Topic Worth Researching? · Choosing a Topic Based on Data Access · Supervisor Expertise and Your Research Topic · When You and Your Supervisor Disagree on the Topic · Changing Your Research Topic After Starting · How Broad Is Too Broad? · How Narrow Is Too Narrow? · How to Narrow a Broad Research Topic · One Research Topic, Multiple Studies · When You Have Too Many Research Ideas · How to Choose Between Two Research Topics · What Makes a Research Problem? · Does a Research Problem Need Something Wrong? · Lack of Understanding as a Research Problem · Inadequate Explanations as Research Problems · Methodological Weakness as a Research Problem · Practical Problems Without a Theoretical Gap · When a Research Problem Is Too Big · Turn a Real-World Problem Into a Research Problem · When an Important Problem Is Not Researchable · When the Research Problem Is Smaller Than Expected · Can a Research Problem Change? · Is Your Research Problem Important Enough? · Who Does the Research Problem Matter To? · Does a Research Problem Need to Affect Many People? · Can a Local Problem Be Worth Researching? · Does Every Study Need a Research Gap? · What Counts as a Genuine Research Gap? · Types of Research Gaps · Is “No One Has Studied This Before” a Research Gap? · Are “Few Studies” Enough to Justify Research? · Is a Different Country a Research Gap? · Is a Different Population a Research Gap? · Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap? · Weak Evidence vs. Missing Evidence · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · When Is a Research Question Too Broad? · Can a Research Question Be Too Narrow? · How Specific Should a Research Question Be? · Is My Research Idea Original Enough? · Research Problem vs. Research Gap

Research Ethics

Also known as: Research ethics principles
The principles and standards governing the responsible design, conduct, oversight, and reporting of research.
Related guides: Personal Experience as a Research Starting Point · Real-World Problems as Research Topics · Should You Choose a Trending Research Topic? · Choosing a Topic Based on Data Access · When You and Your Supervisor Disagree on the Topic · Changing Your Research Topic After Starting · When You Have Too Many Research Ideas · How to Choose Between Two Research Topics · How to Identify a Research Problem · Practical Problems Without a Theoretical Gap · Turn a Real-World Problem Into a Research Problem · When an Important Problem Is Not Researchable · Can a Research Problem Change? · Is Your Research Problem Important Enough? · Who Does the Research Problem Matter To? · Does a Research Problem Need to Affect Many People? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · What Makes a Research Question Researchable? · Does Every Research Question Need a Framework? · Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Questions · Can Research Questions Require Different Methods? · Is This Study Actually Feasible? · From Research Idea to Research Plan

Research Gap

Also known as: Knowledge gap
An unresolved question, inconsistency, limitation, or area of insufficient knowledge in existing evidence that indicates something remains unknown or inadequately understood.
Related guides: Where Research Ideas Come From · Topic, Problem, Question, or Gap? · Real-World Problems as Research Topics · Research Based on Personal Interest · How to Choose a Research Topic · Topic vs. Problem vs. Research Question · How Much Should You Know Before Choosing a Topic? · Is Your Research Topic Too Crowded? · Is an Understudied Topic Worth Researching? · How Narrow Is Too Narrow? · When You Have Too Many Research Ideas · How to Identify a Research Problem · Research Topic vs. Research Problem · What Makes a Research Problem? · Does a Research Problem Need Something Wrong? · Lack of Understanding as a Research Problem · Conflicting Evidence as a Research Problem · Inadequate Explanations as Research Problems · Methodological Weakness as a Research Problem · Practical Problems Without a Theoretical Gap · Research Problem vs. Symptoms · When a Research Problem Is Too Big · Turn a Real-World Problem Into a Research Problem · How Much Evidence Does a Research Problem Need? · When the Research Problem Is Smaller Than Expected · Can a Research Problem Change? · Is Your Research Problem Important Enough? · Does a Research Problem Need to Affect Many People? · Can a Local Problem Be Worth Researching? · How to Find a Research Gap · Does Every Study Need a Research Gap? · What Counts as a Genuine Research Gap? · Types of Research Gaps · Is “No One Has Studied This Before” a Research Gap? · Are “Few Studies” Enough to Justify Research? · Is a Different Country a Research Gap? · Is a Different Population a Research Gap? · Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap? · Weak Evidence vs. Missing Evidence · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · Can a Research Question Be Descriptive? · Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review? · Is My Research Idea Original Enough? · How to Do a Literature Search · How to Organize Your Literature Review · How to Write a Literature Review That Synthesizes · Research Problem vs. Research Gap

Research Hypothesis

Also known as: Hypothesis; Research hypothesis
A testable statement expressing an expected finding or relationship derived from a research question.
Related guides: Inadequate Explanations as Research Problems · Practical Problems Without a Theoretical Gap · Research Problem vs. Symptoms · Turn a Real-World Problem Into a Research Problem · When the Research Problem Is Smaller Than Expected · Can a Research Problem Change? · Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · How to Write a Good Research Question · Can a Research Question Be Too Narrow? · How Specific Should a Research Question Be? · Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Questions · Can a Research Question Be Descriptive? · How Many Research Questions Are Too Many? · Should You Have a Primary Research Question? · Main Question vs. Subquestions · Questions, Objectives, and Hypotheses

Research Idea

Also known as: Research idea; Study idea
A preliminary conception of a possible research inquiry that can be investigated and refined into a research problem, question, or study.
Related guides: Where Research Ideas Come From · Topic, Problem, Question, or Gap? · Personal Experience as a Research Starting Point · Real-World Problems as Research Topics · Research Based on Personal Interest · Familiar vs. New Research Topics · How Much Should You Know Before Choosing a Topic? · Should You Choose a Trending Research Topic? · When You Have Too Many Research Ideas · How to Choose Between Two Research Topics

Research Need

A research gap for which obtaining additional evidence could produce information useful for knowledge, practice, policy, or decision-making.
Related guides: Is an Understudied Topic Worth Researching? · Research Topic vs. Research Problem · What Makes a Research Problem? · Does a Research Problem Need Something Wrong? · Lack of Understanding as a Research Problem · Practical Problems Without a Theoretical Gap · Research Problem vs. Symptoms · When a Research Problem Is Too Big · Turn a Real-World Problem Into a Research Problem · When an Important Problem Is Not Researchable · How Much Evidence Does a Research Problem Need? · When the Research Problem Is Smaller Than Expected · Can a Research Problem Change? · Is Your Research Problem Important Enough? · Who Does the Research Problem Matter To? · Does a Research Problem Need to Affect Many People? · Can a Local Problem Be Worth Researching? · How to Find a Research Gap · Does Every Study Need a Research Gap? · What Counts as a Genuine Research Gap? · Types of Research Gaps · Is “No One Has Studied This Before” a Research Gap? · Are “Few Studies” Enough to Justify Research? · Is a Different Country a Research Gap? · Is a Different Population a Research Gap? · Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap? · Weak Evidence vs. Missing Evidence · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · Research Problem vs. Research Gap

Research Originality

Also known as: Originality; Research originality
The extent to which research makes a distinct contribution relative to existing knowledge rather than merely reproducing what is already adequately established.
Related guides: Where Research Ideas Come From · Research Based on Personal Interest · Familiar vs. New Research Topics · Should You Choose a Trending Research Topic? · Is Your Research Topic Too Crowded? · Is an Understudied Topic Worth Researching? · Practical Problems Without a Theoretical Gap · When the Research Problem Is Smaller Than Expected · Can a Research Problem Change? · Is “No One Has Studied This Before” a Research Gap? · Weak Evidence vs. Missing Evidence · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review? · Is My Research Idea Original Enough?

Research Ownership

Also known as: Intellectual ownership; Intellectual ownership of research
The extent to which a researcher can meaningfully shape, understand, justify, and take intellectual responsibility for the questions, reasoning, decisions, and direction of a research project.
Related guides: When You and Your Supervisor Disagree on the Topic

Research Priority

Also known as: Research priorities; Research prioritization; Research prioritisation
A research need selected for attention or resources relative to other possible research needs based on criteria such as importance, potential value, feasibility, and stakeholder relevance.
Related guides: Is an Understudied Topic Worth Researching? · When You Have Too Many Research Ideas · Practical Problems Without a Theoretical Gap · When an Important Problem Is Not Researchable · How Much Evidence Does a Research Problem Need? · When the Research Problem Is Smaller Than Expected · Is Your Research Problem Important Enough? · Who Does the Research Problem Matter To? · Does a Research Problem Need to Affect Many People? · Are “Few Studies” Enough to Justify Research? · Is a Different Country a Research Gap? · Is a Different Population a Research Gap? · Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap? · Weak Evidence vs. Missing Evidence · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small?

Research Problem

A specific issue, uncertainty, inconsistency, or gap in existing knowledge that warrants systematic investigation.
Related guides: Where Research Ideas Come From · Topic, Problem, Question, or Gap? · Personal Experience as a Research Starting Point · Real-World Problems as Research Topics · Research Based on Personal Interest · How to Choose a Research Topic · Topic vs. Problem vs. Research Question · Familiar vs. New Research Topics · How Much Should You Know Before Choosing a Topic? · Should You Choose a Trending Research Topic? · Choosing a Topic Based on Data Access · When You and Your Supervisor Disagree on the Topic · Changing Your Research Topic After Starting · How Broad Is Too Broad? · How Narrow Is Too Narrow? · How to Narrow a Broad Research Topic · One Research Topic, Multiple Studies · When You Have Too Many Research Ideas · How to Choose Between Two Research Topics · How to Identify a Research Problem · Research Topic vs. Research Problem · What Makes a Research Problem? · Does a Research Problem Need Something Wrong? · Lack of Understanding as a Research Problem · Conflicting Evidence as a Research Problem · Inadequate Explanations as Research Problems · Methodological Weakness as a Research Problem · Practical Problems Without a Theoretical Gap · Research Problem vs. Symptoms · When a Research Problem Is Too Big · Turn a Real-World Problem Into a Research Problem · When an Important Problem Is Not Researchable · How Much Evidence Does a Research Problem Need? · When the Research Problem Is Smaller Than Expected · Can a Research Problem Change? · Is Your Research Problem Important Enough? · Who Does the Research Problem Matter To? · Does a Research Problem Need to Affect Many People? · Can a Local Problem Be Worth Researching? · How to Find a Research Gap · Does Every Study Need a Research Gap? · Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · How to Write a Good Research Question · Can a Study Have Multiple Research Questions? · How Many Research Questions Are Too Many? · Should You Have a Primary Research Question? · Main Question vs. Subquestions · Can Research Questions Require Different Methods? · Is My Research Idea Original Enough? · Scope and Delimitations of Research · Choosing a Research Approach · From Research Idea to Research Plan · Questions, Objectives, and Hypotheses · Research Problem vs. Research Gap

Research Program

Also known as: Program of research; Programme of research; Research programme
A coherent set of related studies or research activities organized around a shared problem, topic, theory, objective, or cumulative line of inquiry.
Related guides: Supervisor Expertise and Your Research Topic · When You and Your Supervisor Disagree on the Topic · One Research Topic, Multiple Studies · When You Have Too Many Research Ideas · How to Choose Between Two Research Topics · When a Research Problem Is Too Big · When an Important Problem Is Not Researchable · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · When Is a Research Question Too Broad? · Can a Study Have Multiple Research Questions? · How Many Research Questions Are Too Many? · What If Your Research Question Cannot Be Answered Directly? · When Does a New Question Become a New Study?

Research Protocol

Also known as: Study protocol; Protocol
A formal, detailed document specifying how a research study is intended to be conducted.
Related guides: Can a Research Problem Change? · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · What Makes a Research Question Researchable? · How Specific Should a Research Question Be? · What Should a Research Question Include? · Does Every Research Question Need a Framework? · Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review? · From Research Idea to Research Plan · How to Read a Research Paper Efficiently · How to Critically Evaluate a Research Paper · Narrative vs. Systematic vs. Scoping Reviews

Research Question

Also known as: RQ
A focused, answerable question that specifies what a study seeks to investigate.
Related guides: Where Research Ideas Come From · Topic, Problem, Question, or Gap? · Personal Experience as a Research Starting Point · Real-World Problems as Research Topics · Research Based on Personal Interest · How to Choose a Research Topic · Topic vs. Problem vs. Research Question · Familiar vs. New Research Topics · How Much Should You Know Before Choosing a Topic? · Should You Choose a Trending Research Topic? · Is Your Research Topic Too Crowded? · Is an Understudied Topic Worth Researching? · Choosing a Topic Based on Data Access · Supervisor Expertise and Your Research Topic · When You and Your Supervisor Disagree on the Topic · Changing Your Research Topic After Starting · How Broad Is Too Broad? · How Narrow Is Too Narrow? · How to Narrow a Broad Research Topic · One Research Topic, Multiple Studies · When You Have Too Many Research Ideas · How to Choose Between Two Research Topics · How to Identify a Research Problem · Research Topic vs. Research Problem · What Makes a Research Problem? · Does a Research Problem Need Something Wrong? · Lack of Understanding as a Research Problem · When a Research Problem Is Too Big · Turn a Real-World Problem Into a Research Problem · When an Important Problem Is Not Researchable · When the Research Problem Is Smaller Than Expected · Can a Research Problem Change? · Is Your Research Problem Important Enough? · Who Does the Research Problem Matter To? · Can a Local Problem Be Worth Researching? · How to Find a Research Gap · Types of Research Gaps · Is “No One Has Studied This Before” a Research Gap? · Is a Different Country a Research Gap? · Is a Different Population a Research Gap? · Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap? · Weak Evidence vs. Missing Evidence · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · How to Write a Good Research Question · What Makes a Research Question Researchable? · When Is a Research Question Too Broad? · Can a Research Question Be Too Narrow? · How Specific Should a Research Question Be? · What Should a Research Question Include? · Does Every Research Question Need a Framework? · Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Questions · Can a Research Question Be Descriptive? · Can a Research Question Ask “Why”? · Can a Study Have Multiple Research Questions? · How Many Research Questions Are Too Many? · Should You Have a Primary Research Question? · Main Question vs. Subquestions · Can Research Questions Require Different Methods? · Can Your Research Question Be Answered With Data? · What If Your Research Question Cannot Be Answered Directly? · Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review? · Is My Research Idea Original Enough? · Is This Study Actually Feasible? · Scope and Delimitations of Research · Choosing a Research Approach · From Research Idea to Research Plan · How to Do a Literature Search · How to Search Academic Databases · How to Read a Research Paper Efficiently · How to Organize Your Literature Review · When to Stop Your Literature Search · Narrative vs. Systematic vs. Scoping Reviews · Questions, Objectives, and Hypotheses · Research Problem vs. Research Gap

Research Relevance

Also known as: Relevance; Relevance of a research question
The extent to which a research question or problem matters to knowledge, practice, policy, decisions, future research, or affected stakeholders.
Related guides: When a Research Problem Is Too Big · When an Important Problem Is Not Researchable · How Much Evidence Does a Research Problem Need? · When the Research Problem Is Smaller Than Expected · Can a Research Problem Change? · Is Your Research Problem Important Enough? · Who Does the Research Problem Matter To? · Does a Research Problem Need to Affect Many People? · Can a Local Problem Be Worth Researching? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · What Makes a Research Question Researchable? · Can a Research Question Be Too Narrow? · How Specific Should a Research Question Be? · Does Every Research Question Need a Framework? · Can a Research Question Be Descriptive?

Research Scope

Also known as: Scope; Scope of the study; Study scope
The extent and boundaries of a study, specifying what the research covers and the context within which its question is addressed.
Related guides: Personal Experience as a Research Starting Point · Research Based on Personal Interest · Topic vs. Problem vs. Research Question · Familiar vs. New Research Topics · How Much Should You Know Before Choosing a Topic? · Choosing a Topic Based on Data Access · Supervisor Expertise and Your Research Topic · When You and Your Supervisor Disagree on the Topic · Changing Your Research Topic After Starting · How Broad Is Too Broad? · How Narrow Is Too Narrow? · How to Narrow a Broad Research Topic · One Research Topic, Multiple Studies · When You Have Too Many Research Ideas · How to Choose Between Two Research Topics · Research Topic vs. Research Problem · What Makes a Research Problem? · Research Problem vs. Symptoms · When a Research Problem Is Too Big · Turn a Real-World Problem Into a Research Problem · When an Important Problem Is Not Researchable · How Much Evidence Does a Research Problem Need? · When the Research Problem Is Smaller Than Expected · Can a Research Problem Change? · Is Your Research Problem Important Enough? · Who Does the Research Problem Matter To? · Does a Research Problem Need to Affect Many People? · Can a Local Problem Be Worth Researching? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · What Makes a Research Question Researchable? · When Is a Research Question Too Broad? · Can a Research Question Be Too Narrow? · How Specific Should a Research Question Be? · What Should a Research Question Include? · Does Every Research Question Need a Framework? · Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Questions · Can a Study Have Multiple Research Questions? · How Many Research Questions Are Too Many? · Should You Have a Primary Research Question? · Main Question vs. Subquestions · Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review? · Scope and Delimitations of Research · From Research Idea to Research Plan · When to Stop Your Literature Search

Research Significance

Also known as: Significance of the study; Study significance
The importance or potential value of a study's expected contribution to knowledge, theory, methodology, practice, policy, or future research.
Related guides: Where Research Ideas Come From · Topic, Problem, Question, or Gap? · Personal Experience as a Research Starting Point · Real-World Problems as Research Topics · Research Based on Personal Interest · Familiar vs. New Research Topics · How Much Should You Know Before Choosing a Topic? · Should You Choose a Trending Research Topic? · Is Your Research Topic Too Crowded? · Is an Understudied Topic Worth Researching? · Choosing a Topic Based on Data Access · Supervisor Expertise and Your Research Topic · Changing Your Research Topic After Starting · How Broad Is Too Broad? · How Narrow Is Too Narrow? · How to Narrow a Broad Research Topic · When You Have Too Many Research Ideas · How to Choose Between Two Research Topics · How to Identify a Research Problem · Research Topic vs. Research Problem · What Makes a Research Problem? · Does a Research Problem Need Something Wrong? · Lack of Understanding as a Research Problem · Conflicting Evidence as a Research Problem · Inadequate Explanations as Research Problems · Methodological Weakness as a Research Problem · Practical Problems Without a Theoretical Gap · Research Problem vs. Symptoms · When a Research Problem Is Too Big · Turn a Real-World Problem Into a Research Problem · When an Important Problem Is Not Researchable · How Much Evidence Does a Research Problem Need? · When the Research Problem Is Smaller Than Expected · Can a Research Problem Change? · Is Your Research Problem Important Enough? · Who Does the Research Problem Matter To? · Does a Research Problem Need to Affect Many People? · Can a Local Problem Be Worth Researching? · Does Every Study Need a Research Gap? · What Counts as a Genuine Research Gap? · Is “No One Has Studied This Before” a Research Gap? · Are “Few Studies” Enough to Justify Research? · Is a Different Country a Research Gap? · Is a Different Population a Research Gap? · Weak Evidence vs. Missing Evidence · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · When Is a Research Question Too Broad? · Can a Research Question Be Too Narrow? · Is My Research Idea Original Enough? · Is This Study Actually Feasible? · Research Problem vs. Research Gap

Research Stakeholder

Also known as: Stakeholder; Research stakeholders
A person, group, community, organization, or other party with an interest in, influence on, use for, or potential to be affected by a research problem, process, findings, or resulting decisions.
Related guides: Research Problem vs. Symptoms · Turn a Real-World Problem Into a Research Problem · When an Important Problem Is Not Researchable · How Much Evidence Does a Research Problem Need? · Who Does the Research Problem Matter To? · Does a Research Problem Need to Affect Many People? · Can a Local Problem Be Worth Researching? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps

Research Symptom

Also known as: Symptom; Observed symptom; Problem symptom
An observable outcome, pattern, indicator, or consequence that signals a possible issue requiring investigation without by itself establishing the underlying research problem or its cause.
Related guides: Research Problem vs. Symptoms · When a Research Problem Is Too Big · Turn a Real-World Problem Into a Research Problem · How Much Evidence Does a Research Problem Need? · When the Research Problem Is Smaller Than Expected · Can a Research Problem Change?

Research Topic

A specific subject or area of inquiry that a study is intended to investigate.
Related guides: Where Research Ideas Come From · Topic, Problem, Question, or Gap? · Personal Experience as a Research Starting Point · Real-World Problems as Research Topics · Research Based on Personal Interest · How to Choose a Research Topic · Topic vs. Problem vs. Research Question · Familiar vs. New Research Topics · How Much Should You Know Before Choosing a Topic? · Should You Choose a Trending Research Topic? · Is Your Research Topic Too Crowded? · Is an Understudied Topic Worth Researching? · Choosing a Topic Based on Data Access · Supervisor Expertise and Your Research Topic · When You and Your Supervisor Disagree on the Topic · Changing Your Research Topic After Starting · How Broad Is Too Broad? · How Narrow Is Too Narrow? · How to Narrow a Broad Research Topic · One Research Topic, Multiple Studies · When You Have Too Many Research Ideas · How to Choose Between Two Research Topics · How to Identify a Research Problem · Research Topic vs. Research Problem · What Makes a Research Problem? · When the Research Problem Is Smaller Than Expected · How to Write a Good Research Question · When Is a Research Question Too Broad? · How Specific Should a Research Question Be?

Researchability

Also known as: Researchable problem; Researchable question
The extent to which a research question or problem can be investigated credibly and ethically using evidence, methods, access, expertise, time, and resources that can realistically be obtained.
Related guides: When an Important Problem Is Not Researchable · Can a Research Problem Change? · Does Every Study Need a Research Gap? · What Counts as a Genuine Research Gap? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · What Makes a Research Question Researchable? · When Is a Research Question Too Broad? · Can a Research Question Be Too Narrow? · How Specific Should a Research Question Be? · Does Every Research Question Need a Framework? · Can a Research Question Ask “Why”? · Can a Study Have Multiple Research Questions? · How Many Research Questions Are Too Many? · Should You Have a Primary Research Question? · Main Question vs. Subquestions · Can Your Research Question Be Answered With Data? · What If Your Research Question Cannot Be Answered Directly? · Research Problem vs. Research Gap

Residual Confounding

Also known as: Uncontrolled confounding
Confounding that remains after adjustment because relevant confounders were unmeasured, inadequately measured, incompletely modeled, or otherwise insufficiently controlled.
Related guides: How to Critically Evaluate a Research Paper

Respect for Persons

Also known as: Respect for persons in research
An ethical principle recognizing individuals' autonomy and requiring appropriate protections for people with diminished autonomy in research.
Related guides: What Makes a Research Question Researchable?

Response Bias

Also known as: Response bias in measurement
Systematic distortion in collected responses caused by features of the response process that make reported or recorded information differ from the information the measurement is intended to capture.
Related guides: Methodological Weakness as a Research Problem

Reverse Causation

Also known as: Reverse causality
A causal explanation in which the presumed outcome influences the presumed exposure or predictor, reversing the direction assumed in an interpretation of their observed association.
Related guides: Causal Language in Observational Research

RIS

Also known as: RIS format; Research Information Systems format
A tagged text format used to exchange bibliographic records among databases, reference managers, and other scholarly information systems.
Related guides: How to Use Reference Managers Effectively

Risk Management

Also known as: Research risk management; Project risk management
The systematic identification, assessment, and planning of responses to uncertainties that could threaten the conduct, completion, or integrity of a research project.
Related guides: Supervisor Expertise and Your Research Topic · When You and Your Supervisor Disagree on the Topic · Changing Your Research Topic After Starting · When You Have Too Many Research Ideas · How to Choose Between Two Research Topics · From Research Idea to Research Plan

Risk of Bias

Also known as: Risk-of-bias assessment; RoB
The risk that features of a study's design, conduct, analysis, or reporting systematically distort its findings or conclusions.
Related guides: Is an Understudied Topic Worth Researching? · Conflicting Evidence as a Research Problem · Methodological Weakness as a Research Problem · How Much Evidence Does a Research Problem Need? · Does Every Study Need a Research Gap? · Are “Few Studies” Enough to Justify Research? · Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap? · Weak Evidence vs. Missing Evidence · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · How to Critically Evaluate a Research Paper · How to Organize Your Literature Review · How to Write a Literature Review That Synthesizes · Narrative vs. Systematic vs. Scoping Reviews

RoB 2

Also known as: Risk of Bias 2; Cochrane Risk of Bias 2
A Cochrane tool for assessing risk of bias in randomized trials across specified domains of study design, conduct, analysis, and reporting.
Related guides: How to Critically Evaluate a Research Paper

ROBINS-I

Also known as: Risk Of Bias In Non-randomized Studies - of Interventions
A Cochrane tool for assessing risk of bias in non-randomized studies of interventions across specified domains.
Related guides: How to Critically Evaluate a Research Paper

Robustness

Also known as: Robustness of findings; Robustness of results
The extent to which a research finding or conclusion remains supported when reasonable changes are made to assumptions, methods, analyses, data, or conditions.
Related guides: Where Research Ideas Come From · How to Choose Between Two Research Topics · How to Identify a Research Problem · Conflicting Evidence as a Research Problem · Inadequate Explanations as Research Problems · When the Research Problem Is Smaller Than Expected · Does Every Study Need a Research Gap? · Types of Research Gaps · Is a Different Population a Research Gap? · Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap? · Weak Evidence vs. Missing Evidence · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · How to Write a Good Research Question · Is My Research Idea Original Enough?

Root Cause Analysis

Also known as: RCA; Root-cause analysis
A structured family of approaches used to investigate an observed problem and identify underlying factors or causes that contribute to its occurrence.
Related guides: Research Problem vs. Symptoms

S

Salami Slicing

Also known as: Salami publication; Salami publishing
The unnecessary fragmentation of a coherent body of research or results into multiple smaller publications that substantially overlap in their questions, data, analyses, or findings.
Related guides: One Research Topic, Multiple Studies

Sample Size

Also known as: Study sample size
The number of participants, observations, units, or cases included or planned for inclusion in a study or analysis.
Related guides: How Broad Is Too Broad? · Conflicting Evidence as a Research Problem · Methodological Weakness as a Research Problem · Does a Research Problem Need to Affect Many People? · Are “Few Studies” Enough to Justify Research? · Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap? · Weak Evidence vs. Missing Evidence · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · When Is a Research Question Too Broad? · Can a Research Question Be Too Narrow? · How Specific Should a Research Question Be? · What Should a Research Question Include? · Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Questions · Can a Study Have Multiple Research Questions? · How Many Research Questions Are Too Many? · Should You Have a Primary Research Question? · Can Your Research Question Be Answered With Data? · What If Your Research Question Cannot Be Answered Directly? · Can Your Research Question Change During Data Collection? · When Does a New Question Become a New Study? · Is This Study Actually Feasible? · Choosing a Research Approach · From Research Idea to Research Plan · How to Read a Research Paper Efficiently · How to Critically Evaluate a Research Paper

Scientific Value

Also known as: Scientific value of research
The extent to which a study is capable of producing reliable and valid information that can meaningfully address its stated research objectives.
Related guides: When an Important Problem Is Not Researchable · When the Research Problem Is Smaller Than Expected · Does Every Study Need a Research Gap? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap

Scoping Review

A form of evidence synthesis that systematically maps the breadth, characteristics, and concepts of literature on a broad topic or question.
Related guides: Is an Understudied Topic Worth Researching? · Methodological Weakness as a Research Problem · How to Find a Research Gap · When Is a Research Question Too Broad? · Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review? · Choosing a Research Approach · Finding Research With Citation Chaining · How to Find Seminal Papers · How to Find the Latest Research · When to Stop Your Literature Search · Narrative vs. Systematic vs. Scoping Reviews

Search Coverage

Also known as: Literature coverage; Search coverage adequacy
The extent to which a literature search has identified and represented the relevant evidence, concepts, sources, perspectives, or portions of a research literature required for its purpose.
Related guides: How Much Evidence Does a Research Problem Need? · What Counts as a Genuine Research Gap? · Is “No One Has Studied This Before” a Research Gap? · Are “Few Studies” Enough to Justify Research? · Is a Different Country a Research Gap? · Is a Different Population a Research Gap? · Weak Evidence vs. Missing Evidence · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · When to Stop Your Literature Search

Search Precision

Also known as: Precision of a search; Retrieval precision
The proportion of retrieved records that are relevant to the information need.
Related guides: How to Do a Literature Search

Search Sensitivity

Also known as: Sensitivity of a search; Retrieval sensitivity; Recall
The proportion of all relevant records in the searchable set that a search successfully retrieves.
Related guides: How to Do a Literature Search

Search Stopping Criterion

Also known as: Stopping criterion; Search stopping rule; Stopping rule
A condition or rule used to determine when further searching is no longer required for the purpose or methodology of a literature search.
Related guides: When to Stop Your Literature Search

Search Strategy

Also known as: Search query; Search string
A documented combination of concepts, terms, operators, fields, limits, and other search instructions used to retrieve information from a search system.
Related guides: How Narrow Is Too Narrow? · What Counts as a Genuine Research Gap? · Is “No One Has Studied This Before” a Research Gap? · Are “Few Studies” Enough to Justify Research? · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · Does Every Research Question Need a Framework? · How to Do a Literature Search · Scopus vs. Web of Science vs. Google Scholar · How to Search Academic Databases · Finding Research With Citation Chaining · How to Find the Latest Research · How to Organize Your Literature Review · When to Stop Your Literature Search · Narrative vs. Systematic vs. Scoping Reviews

Secondary Citation

Also known as: Indirect citation; Secondary source citation
The citation or description of an original source based on another source's account of it rather than direct examination of the original work.
Related guides: How to Write a Literature Review That Synthesizes

Secondary Data

Also known as: Existing data; External data
Data originally collected, generated, or recorded for a purpose other than the research question for which they are subsequently analyzed.
Related guides: Choosing a Topic Based on Data Access · When an Important Problem Is Not Researchable · How Much Evidence Does a Research Problem Need? · Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · Can Your Research Question Be Answered With Data? · What If Your Research Question Cannot Be Answered Directly? · Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review? · When Does a New Question Become a New Study?

Secondary Research Question

Also known as: Secondary question
A research question that addresses an issue related to the primary research question without replacing the study's main investigative focus.
Related guides: How to Write a Good Research Question · Can a Research Question Be Descriptive? · Can a Study Have Multiple Research Questions? · How Many Research Questions Are Too Many? · Should You Have a Primary Research Question? · Main Question vs. Subquestions · From Research Idea to Research Plan · Questions, Objectives, and Hypotheses

Self-Report Data

Also known as: Self-reported data; Self-report measure
Data provided by individuals about their own characteristics, behaviors, experiences, beliefs, attitudes, perceptions, intentions, or other information.
Related guides: Can Your Research Question Be Answered With Data?

Sequential Exploratory Design

Also known as: Exploratory sequential design; Sequential exploratory mixed-methods design
A mixed-methods design in which qualitative inquiry is conducted first and its findings inform a subsequent quantitative phase, such as the development or testing of measures, variables, or hypotheses.
Related guides: Can Research Questions Require Different Methods?

Simulation

Also known as: Research simulation; Simulation modeling
The use of a model to examine outcomes or system behavior under specified structures, parameters, and assumptions when direct observation of the relevant conditions is unavailable or impractical.
Related guides: What If Your Research Question Cannot Be Answered Directly?

Source Appropriateness

Also known as: Evidence-source appropriateness; Source suitability
The extent to which participants, records, documents, observations, or other evidence sources are capable of providing information relevant to the phenomenon or process a research question seeks to investigate.
Related guides: Can Your Research Question Be Answered With Data?

Source Indexing

Also known as: Database indexing; Indexed source; Indexing status
The inclusion and representation of a publication source or its content within a bibliographic or citation database according to that system's indexing practices.
Related guides: Scopus vs. Web of Science vs. Google Scholar

SRQR

Also known as: Standards for Reporting Qualitative Research
A reporting guideline that specifies recommended information for transparent and complete reporting of qualitative research studies.
Related guides: Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Questions

Statistical Generalization

Also known as: Statistical generalisation; Statistical generalizability
The inference of findings from a sample to a defined population using a sampling design and statistical reasoning that support population-level conclusions.
Related guides: How Much Evidence Does a Research Problem Need? · Can a Local Problem Be Worth Researching? · Can a Research Question Be Too Narrow? · Can a Research Question Be Descriptive? · Can Your Research Question Be Answered With Data?

Statistical Multiplicity

Also known as: Multiplicity; Multiple testing; Multiple comparisons problem
The inferential issue that arises when multiple statistical tests, hypotheses, outcomes, or comparisons are evaluated, increasing opportunities for chance findings and potentially requiring methods that account for the number and structure of the analyses.
Related guides: Can a Study Have Multiple Research Questions? · How Many Research Questions Are Too Many? · Should You Have a Primary Research Question?

Statistical Power

Also known as: Power
The probability that a statistical test will detect a specified effect when that effect exists under the assumptions of the analysis.
Related guides: How Broad Is Too Broad? · Conflicting Evidence as a Research Problem · Does Every Study Need a Research Gap? · Are “Few Studies” Enough to Justify Research? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · What Makes a Research Question Researchable? · Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Questions · Can a Study Have Multiple Research Questions? · How Many Research Questions Are Too Many? · Should You Have a Primary Research Question? · Is This Study Actually Feasible? · Choosing a Research Approach · How to Critically Evaluate a Research Paper

Statistical Significance

Also known as: Statistically significant; Significance testing
A designation indicating that a statistical result meets a prespecified threshold for incompatibility with a null hypothesis under the statistical testing procedure used.
Related guides: Conflicting Evidence as a Research Problem · Practical Problems Without a Theoretical Gap · Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · Can Observational Research Ask About an Effect? · Causal Language in Observational Research · Should You Have a Primary Research Question? · Can Your Research Question Be Answered With Data? · How to Critically Evaluate a Research Paper · How to Write a Literature Review That Synthesizes

Stratified Descriptive Analysis

Also known as: Stratified description; Subgroup descriptive analysis
Descriptive analysis that presents a measure or distribution separately across predefined subgroups or strata without necessarily testing whether the groups differ.
Related guides: Can a Research Question Be Descriptive?

Structural Causal Model

Also known as: SCM; Structural causal model
A formal causal model that represents variables and their causal relationships through structural equations and assumptions about how the variables are generated.
Related guides: Can Observational Research Ask About an Effect?

Study Characteristics Table

Also known as: Characteristics-of-studies table; Study characteristics table
A table that presents selected descriptive characteristics of studies included in a literature review or evidence synthesis.
Related guides: How to Write a Literature Review That Synthesizes

Study Design

Also known as: Research design
The overall methodological structure and strategy used to answer a research question.
Related guides: Where Research Ideas Come From · Topic, Problem, Question, or Gap? · Personal Experience as a Research Starting Point · Real-World Problems as Research Topics · Research Based on Personal Interest · How to Choose a Research Topic · Topic vs. Problem vs. Research Question · Familiar vs. New Research Topics · How Much Should You Know Before Choosing a Topic? · Is Your Research Topic Too Crowded? · Is an Understudied Topic Worth Researching? · Choosing a Topic Based on Data Access · Supervisor Expertise and Your Research Topic · When You and Your Supervisor Disagree on the Topic · Changing Your Research Topic After Starting · How Broad Is Too Broad? · How Narrow Is Too Narrow? · How to Narrow a Broad Research Topic · One Research Topic, Multiple Studies · When You Have Too Many Research Ideas · How to Choose Between Two Research Topics · How to Identify a Research Problem · What Makes a Research Problem? · Does a Research Problem Need Something Wrong? · Conflicting Evidence as a Research Problem · Inadequate Explanations as Research Problems · Research Problem vs. Symptoms · When a Research Problem Is Too Big · Turn a Real-World Problem Into a Research Problem · When an Important Problem Is Not Researchable · How Much Evidence Does a Research Problem Need? · When the Research Problem Is Smaller Than Expected · Can a Research Problem Change? · Does a Research Problem Need to Affect Many People? · Can a Local Problem Be Worth Researching? · How to Find a Research Gap · Types of Research Gaps · Is a Different Country a Research Gap? · Is a Different Population a Research Gap? · Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap? · Weak Evidence vs. Missing Evidence · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · How to Write a Good Research Question · What Makes a Research Question Researchable? · When Is a Research Question Too Broad? · How Specific Should a Research Question Be? · What Should a Research Question Include? · Does Every Research Question Need a Framework? · Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Questions · Can a Research Question Be Descriptive? · Can a Study Have Multiple Research Questions? · How Many Research Questions Are Too Many? · Should You Have a Primary Research Question? · Main Question vs. Subquestions · Can Research Questions Require Different Methods? · Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review? · When Does a New Question Become a New Study? · Is My Research Idea Original Enough? · Is This Study Actually Feasible? · Scope and Delimitations of Research · Choosing a Research Approach · From Research Idea to Research Plan · How to Read a Research Paper Efficiently · How to Critically Evaluate a Research Paper · How to Organize Your Literature Review · Questions, Objectives, and Hypotheses

Study Population

Also known as: Research population; Population
The defined group of individuals, units, or cases about which a study seeks to obtain evidence or draw conclusions.
Related guides: Where Research Ideas Come From · How to Choose a Research Topic · Topic vs. Problem vs. Research Question · Choosing a Topic Based on Data Access · Supervisor Expertise and Your Research Topic · When You and Your Supervisor Disagree on the Topic · Changing Your Research Topic After Starting · How Broad Is Too Broad? · How Narrow Is Too Narrow? · How to Narrow a Broad Research Topic · One Research Topic, Multiple Studies · When You Have Too Many Research Ideas · How to Choose Between Two Research Topics · How to Identify a Research Problem · Methodological Weakness as a Research Problem · When a Research Problem Is Too Big · When the Research Problem Is Smaller Than Expected · Can a Research Problem Change? · Can a Local Problem Be Worth Researching? · How to Find a Research Gap · Is a Different Country a Research Gap? · Is a Different Population a Research Gap? · Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap? · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · How to Write a Good Research Question · What Makes a Research Question Researchable? · When Is a Research Question Too Broad? · Can a Research Question Be Too Narrow? · How Specific Should a Research Question Be? · What Should a Research Question Include? · Does Every Research Question Need a Framework? · Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Questions · Can a Research Question Be Descriptive? · Main Question vs. Subquestions · Can Research Questions Require Different Methods? · Can Your Research Question Be Answered With Data? · Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review? · Is My Research Idea Original Enough? · Is This Study Actually Feasible? · Scope and Delimitations of Research · Choosing a Research Approach · From Research Idea to Research Plan · How to Read a Research Paper Efficiently · How to Critically Evaluate a Research Paper · How to Organize Your Literature Review · Questions, Objectives, and Hypotheses

Study Rationale

Also known as: Research rationale; Study justification; Research justification
A reasoned justification for conducting a study that explains why additional research is warranted and what meaningful uncertainty, limitation, verification need, or contribution the study is intended to address.
Related guides: Does Every Study Need a Research Gap? · What Counts as a Genuine Research Gap? · Is “No One Has Studied This Before” a Research Gap? · Are “Few Studies” Enough to Justify Research? · Is a Different Country a Research Gap? · Is a Different Population a Research Gap? · Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap? · Weak Evidence vs. Missing Evidence · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review?

Study Registry

Also known as: Research registry; Study registration registry
A structured information system that records planned, ongoing, or completed studies and selected protocol information to support research transparency, discovery, and tracking.
Related guides: How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled

Study Selection

Also known as: Study screening; Evidence selection
The process of determining which identified studies or records meet predefined criteria for inclusion in a review or evidence synthesis.
Related guides: Narrative vs. Systematic vs. Scoping Reviews

Study-Sized Research Problem

Also known as: Study-sized problem; Study-sized research question
A specific and consequential part of a larger research problem that can be investigated credibly within the scope, methods, evidence, time, expertise, and resources of a single study.
Related guides: When a Research Problem Is Too Big · Turn a Real-World Problem Into a Research Problem · When an Important Problem Is Not Researchable · Can a Research Problem Change? · Weak Evidence vs. Missing Evidence · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How Many Research Questions Are Too Many? · Main Question vs. Subquestions

Supplementary Material

Also known as: Supplementary materials; Supplemental material; Supporting information
Additional content provided with a scholarly publication that supports or extends the main article, such as detailed methods, data, analyses, figures, tables, or appendices.
Related guides: How to Read a Research Paper Efficiently

Synchronization

Also known as: Sync; Data synchronization; Library synchronization
The process of keeping designated data or files consistent across devices, accounts, or services by propagating changes among synchronized copies.
Related guides: How to Use Reference Managers Effectively

Systematic Review

A review that uses predefined, transparent, and reproducible methods to identify, select, appraise, and synthesize evidence addressing a specific research question.
Related guides: Is Your Research Topic Too Crowded? · Is an Understudied Topic Worth Researching? · Conflicting Evidence as a Research Problem · Methodological Weakness as a Research Problem · How Much Evidence Does a Research Problem Need? · When the Research Problem Is Smaller Than Expected · How to Find a Research Gap · What Counts as a Genuine Research Gap? · Are “Few Studies” Enough to Justify Research? · Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap? · Weak Evidence vs. Missing Evidence · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · When Is a Research Question Too Broad? · Does Every Research Question Need a Framework? · What If Your Research Question Cannot Be Answered Directly? · Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review? · Choosing a Research Approach · How to Do a Literature Search · Scopus vs. Web of Science vs. Google Scholar · Finding Research With Citation Chaining · How to Find Seminal Papers · How to Find the Latest Research · How to Read a Research Paper Efficiently · How to Critically Evaluate a Research Paper · How to Organize Your Literature Review · How to Write a Literature Review That Synthesizes · When to Stop Your Literature Search · Narrative vs. Systematic vs. Scoping Reviews

T

Target Trial

Also known as: Target trial framework; Target trial emulation
A hypothetical randomized trial specifying the causal question of interest that can be used to guide the design and analysis of an observational study intended to estimate the same causal effect.
Related guides: Can Observational Research Ask About an Effect?

Theory Testing

Also known as: Test of theory; Empirical theory testing
The systematic evaluation of a theory by examining whether empirical evidence supports, qualifies, extends, or challenges its specified predictions, assumptions, mechanisms, or boundary conditions.
Related guides: Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap

Three-Pass Method

Also known as: Three-pass approach; Three-pass reading method
A progressive method for reading scholarly papers in successive passes that move from general orientation to fuller understanding and, when needed, detailed scrutiny.
Related guides: How to Read a Research Paper Efficiently

Time Frame

Also known as: Timeframe; Time boundary; Temporal boundary
The period or temporal boundary within which a study examines a phenomenon, population, exposure, outcome, or other subject of inquiry.
Related guides: When Is a Research Question Too Broad? · Can a Research Question Be Too Narrow? · How Specific Should a Research Question Be? · What Should a Research Question Include? · Does Every Research Question Need a Framework? · Can a Study Have Multiple Research Questions? · How Many Research Questions Are Too Many? · Can Your Research Question Be Answered With Data? · What If Your Research Question Cannot Be Answered Directly? · When Does a New Question Become a New Study?

Time-Varying Confounding

Also known as: Time-varying confounder; Time-dependent confounding
Confounding involving variables that change over time and are related to subsequent exposure and outcome, sometimes while also being affected by earlier exposure.
Related guides: Causal Language in Observational Research

Transferability

Also known as: Qualitative transferability
The extent to which findings or insights from a study may be applicable or meaningful in other contexts, as judged in relation to similarities and differences between settings.
Related guides: Practical Problems Without a Theoretical Gap · Can a Local Problem Be Worth Researching? · Is a Different Country a Research Gap? · Is a Different Population a Research Gap? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Scope and Delimitations of Research

Transitivity

Also known as: Transitivity assumption
An assumption underlying valid indirect comparisons that the studies being linked are sufficiently comparable in characteristics that could modify relative effects.
Related guides: Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap?

Triangulation

Also known as: Methodological triangulation; Data triangulation; Evidence triangulation
The use and comparison of multiple data sources, methods, investigators, theories, or forms of evidence to examine whether findings converge, complement one another, or reveal meaningful differences.
Related guides: How Much Evidence Does a Research Problem Need? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · Can Research Questions Require Different Methods? · Can Your Research Question Be Answered With Data?

U

Underrepresented Population

Also known as: Underrepresented group; Underrepresented population in research
A population or group represented in research evidence to a lesser extent than is needed to address relevant questions about its characteristics, experiences, outcomes, or responses.
Related guides: When a Research Problem Is Too Big · When the Research Problem Is Smaller Than Expected · Does a Research Problem Need to Affect Many People? · Types of Research Gaps · Is a Different Population a Research Gap? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small? · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · Research Problem vs. Research Gap

Update Search

Also known as: Updated literature search; Literature search update
A search conducted after an earlier literature search to identify relevant records or evidence that have become available since the previous search.
Related guides: Should You Choose a Trending Research Topic? · Is Your Research Topic Too Crowded? · How Much Evidence Does a Research Problem Need? · When the Research Problem Is Smaller Than Expected · Does Every Study Need a Research Gap? · What Counts as a Genuine Research Gap? · Types of Research Gaps · Is “No One Has Studied This Before” a Research Gap? · Are “Few Studies” Enough to Justify Research? · Is a Different Country a Research Gap? · Is a Different Population a Research Gap? · Can Conflicting Findings Be a Research Gap? · Weak Evidence vs. Missing Evidence · Can Outdated Evidence Create a Research Gap? · Can a Missing Comparison Be a Research Gap? · Can an Untested Theory in a New Context Be a Gap? · Can Replication Address a Research Gap? · Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Interesting vs. Important Research Gaps · How to Check If a Research Gap Has Been Filled · How to Avoid Inventing a Research Gap · How to Find the Latest Research · When to Stop Your Literature Search

Use-Inspired Basic Research

Also known as: Use-inspired research; Pasteur's quadrant; Pasteur's Quadrant
Research motivated simultaneously by the pursuit of fundamental understanding and consideration of practical use.
Related guides: Practical Problems Without a Theoretical Gap

V

Validation

Also known as: Model validation; Predictive model validation
The evaluation of a model or method to determine how well its performance and intended interpretations hold in data or conditions distinct from those used to develop it.
Related guides: When Does a New Question Become a New Study?

Value of Information

Also known as: VOI; Value-of-information analysis; VOI analysis
A decision-analytic approach for estimating the value of reducing uncertainty by obtaining additional information, considering how improved information could affect decisions relative to the cost of acquiring it.
Related guides: Is a Research Gap Worth Filling? · Can a Research Gap Be Too Small?

W

Web of Science Core Collection

Also known as: WoS Core Collection
A curated collection of citation indexes within the Web of Science platform covering scholarly journals, conference proceedings, books, and other indexed research content.
Related guides: Scopus vs. Web of Science vs. Google Scholar

Working Research Question

Also known as: Provisional research question; Initial research question
A provisional research question used to guide early searching and study development while remaining open to substantive refinement as understanding of the literature, theory, feasibility, or methodology develops.
Related guides: Can Your Research Question Change During the Literature Review?